Acknowledgments

I wish to thank all of the folks at Crossing Press, publishers of the original version of this work, especially Elaine Goldman Gill and Dennis Hayes, for understanding and helping to preserve the contributions of the old time bakers who plied their craft worldwide. Special thanks to Marcia Pudalov who convinced me that I could write the book, Elaine Greenstein who supplied me with motivation whenever it was lacking. Julia Greenstein, who was so proud of me and promoted the book wherever she could. At Ten Speed Press, thanks to Aaron Wehner and Dennis Hayes whom I suspect were influential in bringing the book into the Ten Speed family. Thanks to my editor, Meghan Keeffe, whose stewardship kept me honest and on schedule who was steering me always forward; and to all the folks at Ten Speed who were involved in this project. Thanks to my friend, Arthur Schwartz, author, radio personality, and culinary instructor, who gave me as much or more constant support and exposure than any person. And Nach Waxman at Kitchen Arts and Letters in New York, my biggest fan, my mentor, my friend—thank you, Nach.

How to Make the Rye Bread Sing

There is something sensual about kneading dough. Touching and molding it is a true hands-on experience. Savor the yeasty aroma. It’s exciting to start with flour and water and feel the mixture come to life with an almost magical quality, stimulated by the gentle pressure of your hands.

I have spent my life working with my hands in pursuit of the perfect loaf. What is the perfect bread? How does one know when it has been found? Who is qualified to judge?

One night, working alone while the others were asleep, I was standing in front of a huge oven. Behind me was a wire rack containing more than two hundred loaves, hot and just removed from the oven. All was still in the bakery that very first time when I heard the rye bread sing. I turned and stood listening, at first without comprehension, then a smile, recognizing the sound—for me, a melody!

Occasionally, when making bread, everything comes together in harmony. The dough is flawless and the surrounding conditions are ideal. When the rye bread is removed from the oven, the crust begins to crack in the cooler air and form a finely veined appearance like alligator skin. To the baker’s ear, the almost imperceptible crackling, multiplied a hundredfold, is a song of praise for the perfect loaf.

CHAPTER ONE
Basic Materials

In all my years as a professional baker, one of the most satisfying tasks has always been bread baking. What a wonderful reward there is when freshly baked loaves are placed on the dinner table, still warm from the oven. One often sees a look of awe on people’s faces when they’re told that the bread before them is homemade.

It has been my experience that many excellent cooks and bakers are intimidated by the thought of making bread at home. Yet bread baking can be made simple to understand for both the novice and the experienced baker. Errors can be easily corrected so that beginners’ first attempts are successful, and with a little practice, professional results can be achieved.

This book is more than just another collection of recipes. It is all about getting professional results using simple and foolproof bread-baking methods, while utilizing modern, time-saving systems without the need for expensive equipment. Whether this is your first attempt at bread making or you are an old hand, this book can be used as a complete bread-baking manual that will produce results sure to delight.

Nutrition and a balanced diet are continually taking on more important roles in our lives. Baking your own bread allows you to take more control of your family’s diet. You can use natural, salt-free, low-fat, and low-cholesterol ingredients to make breads that will enhance your family’s meals. Fiber-rich grains are easily added to breads, and many breads can be produced without sweeteners. Most assuredly, baking bread is one way to improve your family’s nutrition and add to the enjoyment of your daily meals. I must stress at this point that all of the recipes in this book adhere to one simple rule: All of the recipes must taste good. None of this Styrofoam and cardboard nonsense foisted upon the American palate.

In the ensuing pages I share with you many of my hard-won and dearly paid for professional secrets. My father was a European trained baker and we operated bakeries in Queens and in Long Island for a total of over 30 years. I worked in food service in the army from 1952 to 1954. We operated bakeries in Long Island until his demise, then I continued together with my wife, Adele, until 1991. In that time I attended professional baking classes given in New York City under the auspices of the Baker’s Union, and developed my own apprenticeship program for on the job training of disadvantaged young people. The professional recipes that we accumulated over the years, fine-tuned by us both, or those that Dad or I developed, were the basis for the formulary I devised for the home baker. The old European bakers jealously guarded their recipes and methods. I remember an elderly hunchbacked giant of a man grudgingly permitting a novice to weigh out the ingredients for a recipe that was about to be mixed. When it came to the critical ingredients, such as leavening, salt, spices, or flavoring, the master baker always seemed to find an excuse to send the novice to the storeroom for supplies or to the sink for a clean utensil. While the young man was gone, the baker would furtively add the important ingredients so that the newcomer would not be able to memorize the complete recipe.

A friend who taught me much always cautioned me never to take a recipe from another baker unless I mixed it and baked it myself while the other baker stood by and instructed. Otherwise, much to my sorrow, I would belatedly learn that some key ingredient had “accidentally” been omitted from the recipe.

Not many young people are coming into the baking industry. Oddly, in this time of increased awareness about good foods, we are threatened with the loss of time-honored traditional techniques, along with the natural flavor of many foods. Fortunately there has been an insurgence in artisanal baking, resulting in a new awareness of fine bread baking, mainly French and Italian breads. What were considered peasant breads, not much more ingredient-wise than flour and water, natural leavening, and salt, have been embraced by the new bakers all across our country. People have been willing to pay a premium for these breads. But beware, once these bakers start to produce commercial quantities for distribution outside of their handcraft shops, shortcuts and high volume production methods strip away many of the handcrafted qualities. In France today, and other European countries, the village bread baker is being compelled to purchase commissary-produced breads, either frozen, ready to bake, or prepared mixes that are in no way chemical and preservative free, or naturally fermented. The consumer must be alert to these type of changes. Mass production and chemical additives pervade our food supply. For example, years ago my father made wine at home. He began with the grapes, crushed them in a wine press, and fermented the mash naturally, without additives. Today, one buys a grape concentrate in a kit that comes complete with a chemistry set.

I have seen many of our wonderful breads disappearing from the marketplace. I hope that those interested in real food and real bread will find in this book some of the joy of creating a variety of good breads in their own kitchens.

Getting Started

The bread recipes that follow require very little equipment. Most or all of it can be found in your home. The doughs can be mixed and kneaded by hand, although each recipe is also formulated for use with a stand mixer or a food processor. I do not recommend that you purchase a machine when beginning. If you already own one, you may find that it’s more informative and more fun to work by hand at first. It is also possible to gain valuable experience by mixing with the machine and finishing the kneading by hand for the last few minutes.

Here is a list of the basic equipment necessary for getting started.

Oven Thermometer

This is of premier importance, because other than the oven itself, this is the instrument that you will most need to become a successful baker. It is the only tool that you should certainly purchase before beginning. I suggest a good oven thermometer made of stainless steel with a glass tube filled with a mercury-like substance. The round dial type that uses a metal coil tends to be very inaccurate after some use. I strongly recommend using a thermometer every time you bake. Oven thermostats take a lot of abuse from prolonged heat and become inaccurate with time. Accurate baking temperatures are critical for a properly baked loaf. The oven should be preheated and checked with a thermometer each time you bake.

Mixing Bowls

Several large bowls should be on hand. Stoneware or earthenware bowls are the best, since they are heavy and make mixing easier. They retain heat well, so the temperature remains consistent and the dough rises easily. Other ceramic bowls or heavy plastic bowls are also good. Stainless steel bowls can be used, but I find that they transfer heat too quickly and might slow down the rising time.

Wooden Spoons

Several large wooden spoons make mixing easier.

Rubber Spatulas

Several rubber or silicone spatulas of different sizes are handy. If you can, seek out the real rubber or silicone ones instead of the plastic ones found in most shops. The spatulas I have are made in France and do a wonderful job. Better cookery shops carry them.

Plastic Bowl Scraper

A plastic bowl scraper with one straight edge across the bottom and a curved edge on top is an inexpensive tool of a hundred uses. The curved edge is good for scraping dough from a mixing bowl, and the straight edge can be used as an inexpensive dough cutter and work-top scraper. It is also handy for scraping dough together in the initial stages of kneading. Scrapers can be purchased in kitchen or gourmet cooking shops or restaurant supply houses. Some scrapers have multiple curves and no straight edge. The straight-edge type is much more functional; it pays to search them out.

Dough Cutter (optional)

A dough cutter (also called a bun dough cutter) is a rectangular metal scraper with a wooden or plastic grip. Bakers use it for many cutting and scraping chores, but a plastic bowl scraper (above) and wide putty knife can suffice. Dough cutters are available in restaurant supply houses and some cooking catalogues. They are not expensive, and a good one should last a lifetime. In my bakery, we used the Dexter brand.

Measuring Cups

Have on hand two or more graduated measuring cups, one for liquid ingredients and one for dry ingredients.

Measuring Spoons

A set of measuring spoons is essential. If you own two sets, use one for wet ingredients and one for dry.

Pastry Brush

A small, 2-inch-wide brush, such as a paintbrush, preferably with natural bristles, is used to brush bread with liquid, such as water or eggs, before baking. The process is called washing. In a pinch you can use your fingers.

Rolling Pin

A rolling pin is rarely used in bread making. Unless you have one at home, do not purchase one when you begin baking. Most of the breads can be shaped with your hands. A 16-inch length of an old broomstick makes a perfect rolling stick (lightly sandpaper the ends). This is what we used in my bakery for rolling out small pieces of dough or pastry. A similar length of hardwood dowel can be purchased in a hardware store or lumberyard. A pie stick or French rolling stick, a commercially available wooden stick that is thicker in the center and tapers toward each end, does a nice job on small items, and has the advantage of overcoming the tendency to roll out the center of the dough thicker than the outer edges, a common error difficult to overcome.

Work Surface

Large hardwood boards are convenient for kneading and molding dough, and they are easy to clean. The kitchen counter, a table, or a piece of Formica or composite board will suffice. It is most important to work at a comfortable height. I have a hardwood board that I set aside exclusively for baking. After each use I apply a light coat of vegetable oil to keep the wood from drying out after washing. Most bakers scrape their wooden workbenches with a bench scraper (see Dough Cutter, above) and avoid using water on the wood as much as possible.

Loaf Pans

Two to four loaf pans are recommended, approximately 8½ inches by 4½ inches by 2½ inches (sizes may vary). Inexpensive steel meatloaf pans bake better than aluminum ones do but require seasoning (see this page). Black metal or Teflon-coated pans are also fine but do not warrant the expense of purchasing new ones. A shiny pan tends to keep the bread crust from baking to a rich dark color. If a shiny pan is used, when the bread is almost done remove it from the pan and place it on the oven rack for the last 5 minutes of baking. This will allow the crust to brown nicely.

Baking Sheets

One or two baking (cookie) sheets, preferably rimmed, are helpful for baking bread and rolls. See the recommendations for Loaf Pans (above). Buy the heaviest gauge metal for uniform baking.

Muffin Tins

Have on hand several muffin or cupcake tins of a size that suits you, whether standard, jumbo, or miniature.

Getting Serious

The following additional equipment can be acquired by the serious baker over a period of time.

Baskets

Reed or cloth-lined wicker baskets are used as forms for rising bread. The dough is generally dusted with flour and inverted when placed into the basket. When the loaves are turned out, the basket leaves a distinctive pattern that bakes into the crust of the bread.

Bread Pans

FRENCH BREAD PAN. The serious devotee of French bread may wish to purchase a set of baguette pans, each of which looks like a length of split tube or stovepipe. They are usually made up in two or four sections and help bake perfectly formed loaves of French bread. They can also be used to achieve a uniform shape for French rolls. The loaves or rolls are allowed to rise directly in the lightly greased pans in which they are baked. Perforated pans are preferred in commercial bakeries, but the plain ones are more than adequate.

PULLMAN PAN. This long, straight-sided bread pan has a cover that slides onto the top, locking the dough inside. It bakes a square loaf useful for sandwiches and party loaves. Without the cover it can be used for a square-sided pound cake.

Grinders and Graters

Grinders and graters are used in many applications, to grind or grate many ingredients such as bread crumbs, nuts, cheese, and onions. There are recipes that call for ground or grated potato. I grind my own peanut butter; poppy seeds are ground for poppy butter, and for many applications both in the home and throughout the book. In my bakery, we had a large meat grinder which fit onto the head of the stand mixer. The same grinder is available for the KitchenAid and other mixers of its kind. We used it for serious grinding of nuts, raw potato and onion for Potonik and potato breads, and onion breads, among others. With the popularity of the food processor or blender, these are used by the majority of home bakers. In my opinion, their only negative is that they’re a bother to clean. I avoid them for small jobs. I must also include the electric coffee grinder. I have an older one, set aside for grinding spices, seeds, small batches of nuts, and so on. Grinders are very handy and affordable. There is a profusion of hand graters on the market and I would like to expand upon two of them. These do a great job (no pun intended) when small batches are required. Easy cleaning is the catchword. One is the Zyliss (or similar brands), a hand-held rotary grinder made with a washable plastic body, a small hopper on top that contains the ingredients, and a handle that covers the hopper and feeds the ingredients through a stainless steel cutter. Simple to use, it is effortless to take apart for easy cleaning and storage. The other is the Microplane, an adaptation of a file, and it is made of stainless steel that is easily rinsed. It is quite sharp yet very safe when used with a little care, and excels in grating cheese, lemon zest, and so on, and it is easier on the fingers than the old and still reliable box grater (four sided, each side allowing for fine to coarse grinds). The Foley Food Mill, an old reliable standby, can rice potatoes, among other applications. There is also an available hand press for ricing that works well.

Oven Stones or Tiles

Bread bakes best with radiant (indirect) heat. In my bakery we had special brick-lined ovens, which radiated heat evenly throughout the oven. Home bakers seek to duplicate these conditions by using clay tiles (quarry tiles) or an oven stone placed on a shelf in the oven. There is no need to purchase tiles or a stone when you begin. Later, if you bake often, these will allow you to bake crusty bread as many bakeries do, by placing the bread directly on the floor of the oven, called the hearth. Oven or pizza stones are sold in cookery shops and department stores. I use ordinary red clay quarry tiles, which can be purchased from any well-stocked ceramic tile distributor. I brought my wire oven rack to the store with me, and they graciously cut the tiles to fit. These tiles are very inexpensive and can be left in the oven during regular cooking and baking. Leave a bit of space on the sides and front so that the heat can circulate better. Another method is to place the tiles on a baking sheet and slide the sheet in and out of the oven with the bread directly on the tiles. I would say that the tiles are better when placed on a rack and positioned in the center of the oven. The only time the hearth would be noticeably better is when baking pizza. It should be pointed out that this can only be done in a gas oven. In electric ovens it would have to be placed on a rack as close to the bottom as possible.

An interesting recent innovation is the HearthKit, available for advanced baking of crusty sour rye, Jewish corn bread, artisan breads, pizza, and more. The HearthKit is made of an earthen ceramic-like composite, duplicating the firebrick type of hearth used in many commercial bakeries. It is composed of a base that slides into your oven, either on a rack or on the oven floor. Two sides, slightly curved, slide onto the base and curve inward toward the top. The material is preheated in the oven and creates radiant heat, which helps develop crustier breads, yielding rye, French, and Italian breads as good as those you can obtain in many fine bakeries. The HearthKit comes with its own thermometer and needs about 15 to 20 minutes to come to proper temperature. The extra time required is not much of a loss; the stone retains the heat and the oven recycles (the burner turning on and off) less frequently. The bottom can be used alone, on the floor of a gas oven, or on a rack in an electric oven, to produce great pizza. I know of some folks who bake steaks and chops directly on the base and claim the results to be extraordinary. Casserole dishes and roasts can be baked at higher temperatures and develop earthier flavors. Leaving the HearthKit in place alleviates the need to pull it in and out of the oven. It is heavy. Leaving it in the oven for food baking improves the quality of the baked dishes.

Baker’s Peel

A baker’s peel—a wooden pallet with or without a handle—is convenient for sliding bread directly onto the oven hearth (or onto an oven stone or clay tiles). Baking on the oven hearth always produces a better crust than baking bread in a pan does. Sometimes you can allow the bread to rise directly on a cornmeal-dusted peel before sliding the loaf into the oven. A suitable substitute for a peel is a piece of heavy corrugated cardboard. I once saw an artist using a clean painter’s palette as a makeshift peel.

Stand Mixer

Most bakeries mix bread in a stand mixer. I do not recommend purchasing a stand mixer in the beginning unless you intend to make bread regularly or plan to use it for other purposes. When you feel that you are ready for a mixer, make sure you purchase one that’s guaranteed to mix up to 8 cups of flour when making bread dough. Standard equipment should include a wire whip, a flat beater (paddle), and a dough hook. I use a KitchenAid with a 5-quart capacity bowl (model K5SS).

The newest addition to the KitchenAid line is a large-capacity heavy-duty mixer with a 575-watt motor and a 6-quart bowl. It will accommodate 12 to 14 cups of flour. If you use this mixer, I suggest doubling the 2-loaf recipes to yield 4 loaves. It is possible to prepare 6 loaves or double the 3-loaf recipes, but be careful not to overload the motor with too stiff of a dough, and do not exceed 14 cups of flour.

Better breads can be produced with a mixer than by hand, although most people do not know how to use the full kneading power and capacity of their machines. Most people simply take a recipe for making bread by hand and process it in the machine instead; in this book the proper methods for using a stand mixer are fully explained, and recipes are given for its use. A stand mixer allows the baker to develop the full elasticity of the dough by kneading heavier doughs for longer periods of time than is reasonable by hand. The pros know that kneading is more effective when the proper capacity of the mixer is utilized. Even in the smallest bakery, it would be unusual to find less than three different-size mixing bowls being used. The capacity of a good kitchen mixer requires larger amounts of dough than most hand recipes call for. Accordingly, the recipes for machine mixing are written for larger yields. To prepare a smaller, 2-loaf recipe in a mixing machine, use the ingredient list provided for the hand-mixed recipe.

Food Processor

I like to call the food processor “the whiz” because it can whiz through many tedious chores in the kitchen. Many people like to use it for bread, and I have adapted most of my recipes accordingly. Nothing matches the speed of the processor. However, the capacity of the machine is limited by the size of the work bowl. Most processors have a 4-cup capacity, limiting the baker to one loaf of bread. Larger processors are available that allow for bigger batches. If you own one of the larger machines, simply adjust the recipes. Some mixing techniques can double processor yields. I usually make two loaves of bread in my standard machine, and most of the recipes here reflect this practice. In addition I now use a 14-cup capacity food processor that easily allows for two loaves of bread.

Flame Tamer

A flame tamer is used over the stop top burners to diffuse the heat allowing the heat to spread evenly across the bottom of a pot. This prevents scorching and aids in controlling the simmer. There are wire mesh ones for gas stoves and solid disks for electric stoves.

Thermometer

An instant-reading mini chef’s, or baker’s, thermometer with a 1-inch round dial has innumerable uses for the baker. Utilize it to quickly check temperatures of dough, liquids, and even your refrigerator or freezer. Do not leave it in the oven while cooking and baking. My thermometer reads from 0°F to 220°F. It has a 5-inch metal probe and stores in a plastic sheath with a handy clip for keeping it in a pocket or an apron. These thermometers are available in restaurant supply houses and gourmet cookery shops.

Yardstick

A yardstick is perfect for measuring dough on the work surface. Also, the thickness of the stick can often be used as a guide when rolling out thin doughs.

Ingredients

The following brief descriptions of essential ingredients used by professionals will help you produce quality breads with ease and confidence. I’ll begin with the ingredients available in most bakeries and discuss the way the baker makes use of them and how they differ from ingredients available to home bakers. Included are substitutions and suggestions for finding local sources for hard-to-obtain ingredients. There are also tips on storage and some bakers’ secrets and shortcuts.

Flour

Flour, even the same brand, differs in various sections of the country. The amount of flour called for in a bread recipe is always variable—3 to 4 cups, for example. The reason is that the amount of moisture the flour absorbs depends upon many factors, including the age of the flour, when and where the wheat was grown and stored, the amount of humidity in the air, temperature, altitude, and so on. The baker adjusts for these variables by altering the amount of flour while mixing or kneading the dough. This requires a little experience, which you will quickly acquire as you bake. Once the proper measure of flour is established for a recipe, if you use the same brand, the amount of flour needed will stay fairly constant throughout any given season.

Modern flour, when used for making bread, does not have to be sifted. Professionals only sift flour in certain cake recipes where it is necessary for very light and tender results. Breads are basically flour and water, and sifting will make no difference in the final product. Bakers adjust for differences in weight due to settling and moisture absorption by varying the amount of flour when mixing. Modern flour is clean and free from foreign matter. If for any reason the purity of the flour is in question, sifting would certainly be in order. Otherwise, in all the recipes flour is not sifted unless so specified.

The main differences between baking at home and in a bakery are found in the flour. The flours in the bakery are not generally available to the home cook. Most consumer markets carry at least two types of flour: all-purpose flour and cake flour. Bread flour (high in gluten content) is now readily available in many parts of the country. Specialty flours, such as white rye, pumpernickel, and stone-ground whole wheat flour, are often available, too. The most difficult to find is First Clear or Clear Flour (same thing). I have included some mail-order sources. Try a friendly local bakery, but if they do not make real Jewish sour rye bread, they will not be using this flour. Cake flour is generally unsuitable for yeast-raised bread doughs. Keeping extra flour on hand is a good practice.

ALL-PURPOSE FLOUR. This is a hard wheat flour either combined with a small proportion of soft wheat flour or milled with a lower protein content than the high-gluten flour used in commercial bakeries. This flour is in general use for home bread recipes. While in some recipes its use is a compromise, it excels in others (see “short-patent flour,” below). All-purpose flour is available bleached and unbleached; the unbleached has a slightly higher protein content. Most of the recipes in this book are formulated for use with unbleached all-purpose flour. All recipes suggest the appropriate bakery flour to use, if available.

HIGH-GLUTEN OR BREAD FLOUR. This flour has the highest content of gluten, or protein, of all the flours. It is milled from hard winter wheat and used for light-textured rolls, breads, and yeast cakes. In my bakery I used high-gluten flour milled from hard wheat grown in Montana and North Dakota, since I consider these the finest available. Some Canadian high-gluten flour is equally as good. It was not available in the United States for many years, but now can be found in some markets. In the olden days, bakers called this king, or strong, flour. It is now available in many supermarkets labeled as bread flour. If not, ask the store manager to order it for you.

SHORT-PATENT FLOUR. Lower in gluten content than high-gluten flour, short-patent flour is used where the bread requires a denser texture, as with biscuits and many pie crusts. The best example of short-patent flour is White Lily brand flour, a product of the South that’s starting to show up in stores across the country. All-purpose flour falls in between the high-gluten and short-patent flours in protein content and can be substituted in place of either. All-purpose flour is not used in commercial bakeries. Years ago, bakeries chauvinistically called short-patent flour weak, or queen, flour. (The terms king, queen, and common—see below—allowed the flour bins to be labeled without regard to brand names. I suspect that many bakers could not read or write well but were able to memorize K, Q, and C, or the number of letters in the words. This type of labeling was seen in bakeries as late as the 1950s.)

Some French and Italian breads are formulated with a blend of high-gluten and short-patent flour, lowering the gluten content and therefore avoiding large air pockets and a denser texture. All-purpose flour gives somewhat similar results.

CLEAR, FIRST CLEAR, OR COMMON FLOUR. Often referred to as common flour or simply clear flour, this is the least refined of the bread flours. Lower in gluten content and darker in color than other flours, it is used primarily in rye breads. Rye flour has no gluten and has to be mixed with a wheat flour in order to rise. The common flour keeps the desired off-white color of the rye while providing enough gluten for the bread to rise. The lower protein content allows for a dense texture, which makes it a good sandwich bread and gives it the chewy bite sought for in rye bread. Use of common flour is one of the secrets of making real Jewish rye bread. The best source is a local bakery, or try specialty shops that carry flour made from different grains. Perhaps they will even order it for you. Otherwise, try mail order.

WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR. Milled from the whole kernel of the wheat, this flour includes the germ and outer husk, which are rich in nutrients. Stone-ground whole wheat flour is preferable because it is roughly ground and therefore coarsely textured, which makes a better-eating loaf. Stone-ground milling also causes less destruction of the desirable nutrients. This type of flour is now widely available. Stores that sell loose flour by weight are the best sources in terms of freshness and price. Refrigerate or store this flour in a cool place; since the wheat germ contains fat, it can spoil quickly in hot, humid weather.

CAKE FLOUR. Also called high-ratio cake flour, this flour is used in fine, light cakes and batters. It allows a higher ratio of sugar to shortening or fat to be absorbed, making for a richer, lighter cake. When short-patent flour is not available for breads, the baker often uses a scoop or two of cake flour to lower the gluten content of a high-gluten flour. Home bakers can also use this trick to lower the gluten content in all-purpose flour.

PASTRY FLOUR. Used in short doughs (doughs that are very tender and flaky, not chewy) with a low sugar-to-shortening ratio, this flour makes fine pie crusts, pastry doughs, and cookie doughs.

RYE FLOUR. Often call white rye, this flour is milled from rye grain. Off-white or slightly gray in color, it is used mainly for rye breads and rye rolls. As has been noted, rye flour has no gluten and will not rise unless combined with flour that does contain gluten. Rye flour is available from gourmet or wholesale supply houses, but the best sources are a friendly local baker, natural foods store, or food cooperative. Note that rye flour is now available in local markets and is labeled “white rye.”

PUMPERNICKEL FLOUR. This medium-ground rye flour, somewhat coarse and light brown in color, is similar to bran in appearance. Pumpernickel is usually labeled medium rye, not pumpernickel, in commercial packaging.

CORNMEAL. Milled in fine to coarse granules, cornmeal is used for southern-style corn bread, muffins, corn sticks, and New England johnnycakes. Cornmeal is available as yellow or white cornmeal; most bakers use the yellow variety, which is less costly. There is no difference in flavor. New Englanders seem to prefer white cornmeal in many of their recipes. An extra-fine grind, known as corn flour, is used in some recipes. Stone-ground cornmeal is coarser, less processed, and has less heat applied so that some of the desirable flavors seem intensified.

SEMOLINA FLOUR. This pale yellow flour, high in gluten content, is made from fine durum wheat, which gives it a light yellow color and a slightly chewy texture when properly prepared. It is used for Italian semolina bread and in better pastas.

DUSTING FLOUR OR MEAL. A baking pan or peel is dusted so that the unbaked loaf of bread does not stick. Fine yellow cornmeal is most often used for dusting.

Yeast

The home baker has several choices available when selecting yeast. In each choice, I have indicated my personal preferences.

ACTIVE DRY YEAST. Active dry yeast packets need no refrigeration, have a long shelf life, and will work properly if not outdated. The life of the packets can be further extended by refrigerating or freezing. I always keep dry yeast packets in the refrigerator or freezer. In very warm or tropical climates, dry yeast (rather than compressed fresh yeast) should always be used. Active dry yeast is available in bulk packages, which must be refrigerated. If you do a good deal of bread baking, the savings gained by using bulk yeast is phenomenal and worth the effort to locate a source. Try a wholesale yeast or bakery distributor, or natural foods stores. Recipes in this book call for amounts of yeast by number of packages. If you are able to obtain bulk active dry yeast, use 1 scant tablespoon for each package the recipe calls for.

BREWER’S YEAST. Brewer’s yeast, rich in B vitamins, cannot make dough rise, but it is sometimes added to enrich bread.

COMPRESSED FRESH YEAST. In my bakery we used compressed bricks of fresh yeast, delivered twice weekly to ensure freshness. Although most bakers feel that fresh yeast is more powerful than the dry type—that it creates a livelier dough with a yeasty aroma—I generally do not recommend using it in home baking. Fresh yeast is extremely perishable. It must be kept under refrigeration, and I do not like to store it for more than 1 week. If you use it, be wary of purchasing it in a supermarket, because it may have been there a long time. Try to persuade your friendly local baker to sell you some. Unless you take a full cake of yeast, you may be given a small precut piece that may have been kept too long and has begun to dry out. The yeast should be smooth looking and of even color, without many streaks in it. The edges will start to brown lightly after several days. This is perfectly all right. One ounce of fresh yeast is equivalent to two envelopes of active dry yeast.

Since dry yeast is more expensive than fresh, if a great amount of baking is being done I would consider using fresh yeast. I sometimes take a 1-pound cake of compressed yeast, crumble it up, and keep it in the freezer, well wrapped. The evening before I intend to use it, I break off a small bit and refrigerate it for use the next morning. It keeps quite well frozen. If you freeze fresh yeast or are unsure of any yeast you use, I recommend proofing it by adding a pinch of sugar and dissolving it in a small portion of the warm liquid called for in the recipe. After 5 to 10 minutes it should begin to foam or bubble, indicating that it’s still viable and may be used.

RAPID RISE YEAST. Rapid rise yeast, which supposedly acts twice as fast as regular yeast, in my opinion will give you breads that are half as good. Bread with full-bodied flavor and aroma requires dough that has been fully aged. Like good wine, it should not be rushed; it requires slow, full rising, as described in the recipes. I feel that the higher temperatures called for when using rapid rise yeast are too hot and adversely affect the finished product. If you do use rapid rise yeast, use it in the same way as the regular type.

Bakeries sometimes rush a dough with the addition of extra yeast; the results are never superior. Sometimes people suggest double amounts of yeast, or more, for quick results. Save your precious time and energy and bring home a loaf of store-bought bread. Having gone through the work of mixing, kneading, rising, baking, and cooling, you are entitled to a quality result for your efforts. Even if you have never baked before, your very first attempt will result in a wonderful bread if you follow directions carefully.

Eggs

When added to bread dough, eggs enrich the dough, add flavor and color, and soften and expand the bread as it rises, making it more tender. In my bakery we used fresh eggs, shelled frozen eggs available as whole eggs, enriched eggs (one extra yolk to two, or more whole eggs), egg whites, and sugared yolks. In a bread recipe where one egg is used per each cup of liquid, two egg whites or a cholesterol-free egg substitute may replace one whole egg. This does not necessarily hold true when a greater proportion of eggs to liquid is called for. Do not be afraid to experiment.

Salt

When used in yeast doughs, salt retards the growth of yeast cells. This allows you to control the aging of the dough in addition to adding flavor to the bread. In most recipes a ratio of 1 to 1½ teaspoons salt to each 3 cups flour is maintained. Recognizing the need to reduce the amount of sodium in the diet, I have cut back the salt in most of the bread recipes to the minimum ratio of 1 teaspoon salt to 3 cups flour. Of course, you can vary these amounts to suit your own taste.

Nondairy Substitutes

Nondairy substitutes for milk, sour cream, and yogurt can be used to convert dairy recipes to pareve (nondairy). Brands seem to change over time. When preparing pareve recipes, I currently use the certified kosher Coffee Rich brand creamer in either powder or liquid form in place of milk. And I use Tofutti’s nondairy sour cream in place of its dairy counterpart as well as Tofutti’s cream cheese in place of cheese for cheese fillings and other applications. Experiment with these products and seek out new products on the Internet. For a nondairy streusel substitute, use margarine or shortening for butter.

Skim Milk Powder

The addition of milk to bread doughs imparts flavor, adds color to the crust, and acts as a tenderizer. Milk is high in protein, calcium, and important vitamins. In this book, skim milk powder is used. Among its many advantages are that it is easy to store and it can be mixed in dry. Nutritionally, it is more desirable than whole milk, since it provides all the benefits without the fat. It’s also economical. There is no discernible difference in flavor in the finished bread, whether you use skim milk powder or whole milk.

Buttermilk is also available as a powder. Use ¼ cup powder to 1 cup water. It can be added dry and mixed with the rest of the ingredients. See this page for an easy way to make your own buttermilk using skim milk powder.

Shortening, Fats, and Oils

Shortenings, fats, or vegetable oils, when used in bread dough, tenderize the bread, make it soft or flaky, add flavor (especially with butter or olive oil), improve texture and bite, and add keeping qualities to the finished bread (due to moisture retention). A hard fat or shortening as opposed to a liquid produces a finer texture and more tolerance in the rising. Because people are becoming more conscious about the merits of consuming liquid vegetable oils, I have tried to substitute liquid vegetable oils for hard fats, both vegetable and animal. Often you can substitute measure for measure. Those recipes that are much better with hard fats can generally be changed to half hard, half liquid. Experiment—that is one of the bonuses of baking your own bread.

Also note that in the current trend to remove trans fat from our diet, the manufacturer of Crisco brand shortening has introduced a shortening containing no trans fat—a considerable reduction since the original version includes 12 grams of fat per tablespoon of which 3 grams, or 25 percent, are trans fat. The product produces satisfactory results, though not quite like the original. When baking certain cakes and cookies where all shortening or half and half butter and shortening is recommended, I suggest first trying half butter and half vegetable oil, such as olive oil, safflower oil, or canola oil.

Sources

It is somewhat fruitless to try to include specific information about sources of ingredients for the baker. Sources disappear with time, sales policies are altered, and what is available in one part of the country is not in another. Some national flour mills merchandise their flour using different brand names in different areas. Conversely, flours with the same brand name can differ from one region to another.

In my area there is a wholesale bakers’ cooperative that sells retail on certain days of the week during specific hours. Seek these out in your own area. Call wholesale bakery supply houses and inquire if they sell small amounts to walk-in customers. Ask for recommendations. Many retail bakers will sell fresh ingredients in small amounts. Cultivate a working relationship with these folks. A bakery that does not make its own sour rye bread will probably not have clear flour (see this page) on hand, but they might be able to put you in touch with someone who does.

Neighborhood food co-ops often have ingredients not found elsewhere. Natural foods stores and gourmet shops are good sources, too. Large markets in rural areas are sometimes as well stocked as wholesale suppliers. Some urban supermarkets carry more bakers’ supplies than others. Seek them out. Markets in ethnic areas are always excellent sources. Network: ask friends who bake or those who are gourmet cooks. If you find a flour that is hard to come by, take home an extra supply, because it may not be available in warm weather, or the supplier may receive only one or two shipments per year. Ask the store manager when in doubt. Flour can be stored for months in a cool, dry area and can be refrigerated or frozen.

And finally, don’t overlook the Internet as a source for specialty baking ingredients and supplies. These days you can buy just about anything on the Internet, including flour. Of course, shipping can be a substantial expense, so you’ll probably want to use these sources only for ingredients that you require in small amounts or infrequently.

Correcting Misconceptions

Over the years, neighborhood bakeries have adopted many modern techniques and labor-saving devices, making many traditional steps and old ways unnecessary. This book gives you the benefit of the best small-bakery recipes presented in the simplest and most efficient form. However, a few misconceptions are so widespread as to warrant addressing them here.

Proofing Yeast

In years past we always proofed the yeast—proved that it was active—before adding it to the mix. This was accomplished by dissolving the yeast in a portion of water with a pinch of sugar to see if the yeast began to bubble upon standing. With modern yeast, we no longer proof unless the potency is suspect. This holds true for the active dry yeast packets used in the home kitchen. If the yeast is not outdated, there is no need to proof it. One must, however, activate the dry yeast by dissolving it first in warm water (105°F to 115°F). Mixing can then proceed at once. If the water feels warm to your fingertips, it will be fine for the yeast. Use a thermometer the first few times, and you will quickly learn to judge the proper temperature by feel.

Another mistaken practice is to add sugar to the warm water when dissolving yeast in the normal mixing process. It was thought that the yeast had to be fed to begin activation. Warm water alone will awaken the yeast, which will feed on natural sugars in the flour. Nothing additional is required.

Scalding Milk

I am often surprised to see a modern recipe that calls for scalding whole milk in a yeast dough. The reason for this is very simple: there is an enzyme present in whole milk that is able to destroy the yeast cells, causing the dough to rise poorly or preventing it from rising at all. Bakers very quickly learned that by scalding the milk, the enzyme was destroyed. In addition, all processed whole milk is pasteurized, and most whipping cream now available is ultra-pasteurized, meaning sterilized. Pasteurization and sterilization are heat processes, and the enzymes in question are no longer present in our milk, so there is no reason to scald it. Unless raw whole milk is used, you may safely ignore a requirement for scalding milk in any bread recipe. Thinking this through, it should become apparent that powdered milk has been manufactured with a heat process that destroys the enzyme. When a formula specifies skim milk powder, it is used as a dry ingredient and the dough is made in the normal manner.

Vinegar in Sourdough Bread

Sourdough breads are made from a sour, or starter, which is a batter of flour and water allowed to ferment under controlled conditions and used as a base for making the breads. I am appalled by recipes that call for vinegar to be incorporated into the dough to create sourdough bread and rolls. Sourdough breads and rolls made from a proper sour, or starter, have no vinegary flavor. The sourdough process adds a pre-fermented base to the bread dough, which results in a dough that is more aged and a crumb with more moisture. It creates better texture and produces superior flavor.

Sour, fermented by wild yeast present in the air, was used as leavening to make breads rise as far back as ancient Egypt. It often produced erratic results. With the advent of modern yeast, we use the sour for flavor and aging and rely on yeast for controlled leavening. Some artisan breads should only be naturally fermented. Hand a baker a slice of bread and he or she will most likely smell the bread before tasting. Smell the aroma of real sour rye or sourdough wheat bread and you will instantly become an expert at recognizing it.

CHAPTER TWO
Bread Making A to Z

This chapter contains everything you need to know about bread making, from an all-but-forgotten secret about making pumpernickel bread (see “Altus,” this page) to common mistakes that even the pros make and how to avoid or correct them. Also included in this chapter are directions for the preparation of ingredients such as homegrown sprouts, toasted nuts, pumpernickel color, and homemade buttermilk, and instructions for shaping loaves. Important in baking professional-looking bread, proper shaping has a vital effect on the quality of the finished loaf, and I’ve explained how to craft free-form loaves, French baguettes, pan loaves, and more.

Almond Paste

Almond paste has many uses in baking and pastry making. In commercial bakeries, it is often replaced by kernel paste, made from apricot pits, or macaroon paste, a mixture of almond paste and kernel paste. Almond paste is expensive, and the supermarket variety (of which the canned version is best) is not as good as the commercial product. Try to purchase this at a local bakery, but make sure that you are not paying for pure almond paste if what you are buying is kernel paste. You can make your own almond paste as follows, but be aware that it will only approximate the real almond paste.

In a food processor, grind the almonds with 2 tablespoons of the water until smooth when rubbed between your fingers.

In a heavy saucepan, heat the remaining 2 tablespoons water. Add the sugar and corn syrup; heat slowly until the sugar melts, then bring to a boil. Cover and boil for 3 minutes.

Remove the lid but do not stir. Using a candy thermometer, heat the mixture to 240°F (soft-ball stage). Remove the pan from the heat and add the almond extract.

With the processor running, slowly add the hot syrup to the almonds until the paste forms a ball and tries to ride up the blade. Allow to cool.

Refrigerate in a sealed plastic bag or tightly covered container for at least 1 week to allow the flavor to develop. Bring to room temperature before use.

YIELD Makes about 1 pound.

Altus

European in origin, altus is little known outside of bakeries. When introduced to altus, many people think of it as a method of using up stale bread. However, as with many old-fashioned techniques, bakers find that it enhances the desirable qualities of certain breads. Its use seems to have begun in the making of pumpernickel doughs, and the best of these breads often contain altus.

Altus is a mash made by slicing leftover rye bread and trimming away the crusts, soaking the trimmed bread in water for several hours or overnight under refrigeration, then squeezing it dry. Added in small amounts to bread dough, altus intensifies the distinctive flavor of pumpernickel and rye bread and helps them retain moisture. When using altus, allow for a little extra flour in the recipe. The mash keeps well, covered, in the refrigerator.

Butter Substitutes

Although butter imparts a special flavor to baked goods, in recipes for cakes or pastries commercial bakers often substitute shortening for butter, measure for measure. In delicate pastries such as croissants, shortening is often substituted for half the butter to make them flakier. This also makes them less fragile, allowing them to be packaged and transported more safely.

Oils often do not give the same results as hard fats and cannot be substituted indiscriminately. However, when baking breads or yeast cakes, in most cases half of the fat can safely be replaced with liquid oils. Sometimes butter flavor is used to enhance the flavor or aroma of baked goods, and butter-flavored shortenings, oils, and sprays are becoming more widely available for the home baker.

Cut and Stipple

When most breads are ready for the oven, the tops are either scored with a sharp knife or single-edge razor blade, or they are stippled (docked) with a series of small holes made with a skewer or pointed blade, allowing the expanding gases in the loaf to escape without causing the crust to burst. Where appropriate, recipes in this book suggest a method or pattern.

The fashion in which the cuts are made influences the appearance and often the flavor of the bread. In cutting French or Italian bread, the slash is not made vertically. The blade is held at an angle of not more than 30 degrees, and the cut is made as if slitting under the skin of the bread. When the bread rises in the oven, this type of slash swells and the crust thickens along the lip. The thickening of the swollen crust is referred to as bloom, which gives the bread its traditional appearance and makes it crisp and chewy. French bread may have from three to ten slashes, the number determined by the length of the bread.

Other cuts or holes allow the bread to expand and form a design, sometimes quite intricate. Round breads may have a tic-tac-toe pattern; others may be stippled with a serious of holes. Most breads are cut in an orthodox manner that serves to identify them. Others might be cut with an interesting pattern that’s the signature of the baker. When you have a bit of experience, you should feel free to try some ideas of your own.

Occasionally, the crust will burst regardless of your best efforts. Do not despair. When we baked our Jewish Corn Bread in my bakery, knowledgeable shoppers would seek out a loaf with a split crust. This part of the bread is remarkably crunchy. It was often selected by the bakers, myself included, for their own table.

Cutting In

Several different methods can be used to blend together shortening and flour or sugar without creaming or aerating the two, a process termed cutting in. After cutting in, the shortening should be thoroughly distributed; the mixture will have a grainy appearance. You can use a pastry blender, two knives, or a fork, but you may find it easiest to rub the mixture between your fingers.

Dough, Mixing and Kneading

All of the yeast-raised breads in this book can be mixed by hand. I suggest that your first efforts be done by hand, which will provide you with a basic feeling for the doughs. Choose one of two methods—the straight dough method or the sponge method. Neither is difficult.

Straight Dough Method

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over warm water (105°F to 115°F). The exact temperature is not critical. If the water feels warm to the touch, the yeast will activate. Add the ingredients as specified in the recipe. The precise amount of flour will be determined while kneading. Stir with a wooden spoon until the dough forms up into a ball and begins to come away from the sides of the bowl. Turn out onto a lightly floured board. Scrape down the sides of the bowl and add the scrapings to the dough. Knead as described below.

Sponge Method

This method pre-ferments part of the dough, resulting in a moister and more flavorful loaf. The sponge doubles in volume in 20 to 45 minutes, depending upon room temperature, and this takes the place of the first rise (see this page). Sprinkle the yeast over warm water and stir in a portion of the flour until smooth. Cover and set aside until the mixture doubles in volume or appears bubbly or spongy. Stir in the balance of the ingredients and mix the dough as in the method above. When the dough is fully kneaded, allow it to rest, then shape it into loaves. The amount of time from start to shaping the loaf is often less than in the straight dough method.

Kneading

Kneading may be done on any clean, flat surface, such as a countertop, worktable, or kitchen table. It is important to work at a convenient, comfortable height—one that allows you to knead with arms extended so that you can press down from the shoulders without bending excessively. I prefer working with a hardwood board placed on the countertop. Wood makes a good work surface and is easily cleaned. A marble slab is excellent and is always cool.

After mixing as above, turn out the dough onto a lightly floured work surface. The dough will be wet and sticky. Keep your hands dusted with flour. With your palms, push down from the shoulders, turn the dough a quarter turn, fold it in half, press away, turn, fold, press, turn, fold, press—working the dough up into a ball. Use a plastic or metal dough scraper to keep the surface of the board clean. Work the scrapings back into the dough. When the dough is no longer sticky to the touch, pick it up and stretch it to develop the elasticity. Knead once or twice and stretch again. Repeat this several times. Then lift the dough and drop it down onto the work surface, lift once more, turn over, and drop it again. Repeat—stretching, dropping, and kneading. This serves to aerate the dough. Some folks say that this also helps work out tensions. Don’t be afraid to slam it down.

If the dough is still too sticky, more flour can be added ¼ cup at a time. If the dough is stiff and unyielding, soften it with cool water added 1 teaspoon at a time. Extra time is required to incorporate the water into the dough, so be patient. Press your hand down on the dough; if it comes away clean it contains sufficient flour. Continue to turn, fold, and press until the dough feels smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes or more). As the dough becomes fully developed, it should come to life and push back, not feel limp.

The kneading process can be a relaxing and personally satisfying endeavor. It’s fun! Tear off a small piece of dough as you begin kneading. Try to stretch it and it will tear. Repeat when the dough is ready, and it will stretch beautifully. If you hold a small piece of dough, fully stretched, up to the light, you will see a pattern of fine, even lines in the dough. This is the gluten, coming to life under the pressure of your hands.

Stand Mixer

A stand mixer is capable of producing a better bread dough than is possible by hand or with a food processor. You will find that the recipes in this book often require more mixing time when a stand mixer is used. Kneading with the mixer allows bakers to make a stiffer dough and develop the gluten to its full strength. This results in a larger, better-textured loaf. In bakeries, ice water is often used to control the dough temperature so that the dough may be kneaded longer and developed further. In summer and in hot climates, do this at home by using ice water and cold ingredients. The goal is to maintain a 78°F to 80°F dough temperature while mixing for 10 to 15 minutes. There is some leeway in the dough temperature. Going over by a few degrees is not fatal. In bakeries it is not unusual to mix some doughs for 25 minutes. If you feel that the dough has become too hot, cover and allow it to rise in the refrigerator.

It is important when mixing bread dough with a stand mixer to use only a heavy-duty machine with a minimum capacity of 8 cups of flour. Stand mixers do a better job of kneading when operated at their ideal capacity. Whereas most cookbooks call for the same volume of ingredients whether mixing by hand or with a stand mixer, here you will find separate recipes for using a stand mixer, producing larger yields. You will quickly find out for yourself how much better your breads are when using these methods. As a bonus, you will often get three loaves for the same effort as you previously expended for only two. The hand-mixed recipe can always be used in the stand mixer when only two breads are desired.

In bakeries, most bread doughs are mixed with a dough hook, but I have found that with most home mixers the hook is not able to stir the liquid and dry ingredients together until they are combined or are solid enough for the kneading process to begin. That’s why in some recipes I specify using the flat beater until the ingredients are mixed into a dough solid enough to knead with the hook. The flat beater is then removed, the dough scraped back into the bowl, and the dough hook inserted. The dough is then kneaded with the mixer until it is fully developed. To determine kneading time, start when the dough stops flopping around and the dough hook bites into the mass.

KitchenAid has a newly configured dough hook that kneads bread doughs without having to use the flat beater. (New for me, that is; the new design showed up in the 1980s—shows how long their machines last!) The change is imperceptible to the eye, but it allows the dough to be mixed with only the dough hook and it also develops the dough more quickly. Some of the recipes for stiff doughs may strain your mixer. Always begin with the smallest amount of flour called for in the recipe, holding back 2 cups of flour. Mix until the flour is barely incorporated, then add the reserved amount in several additions. The mixer can get very warm, but it is safe to continue mixing. If necessary, keep the dough a little softer than called for. When in doubt, refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations. You can always process part of the dough separately. You also have the option of finishing kneading by hand. If experience proves that a stand mixer recipe is too large for your mixer, use the amounts called for in the smaller, hand-mixed recipe.

Food Processor

The basic procedure for mixing bread with a food processor is as follows: Yeast is softened in warm water in the work bowl. Half the flour, the other dry ingredients, and ice water are added. The machine is run until a dough forms. The rest of the flour is added 1 cup at a time, pulsing until the dough is thoroughly mixed. At the speed of this machine, often the mixing time is a minute or less.

If the dough is overprocessed, in baker’s terminology the dough becomes burned; that is, so much heat is built up from friction that the yeast cells and enzymes present in the dough are destroyed and the dough becomes useless. Here’s how to overcome this problem. Each cup of water in the recipe is divided into two parts: ¼ cup warm water and ¾ cup ice water. Dry yeast requires warm water (105°F to 115°F) to become activated. Ice water brings down the temperature of the dough, allowing it to be processed for 2 to 3 minutes or longer.

Ordinarily, a standard 4-cup food processor has the capacity to mix one loaf of bread. Following the method used in these recipes, it is possible to produce two loaves. If the machine strains and overheats, it will stop automatically. After cooling down for several minutes, the machine can be restarted without any harm. When mixing a large batch of dough, if the machine begins to labor, stop, remove the dough, divide it in half, and process each half separately. When each is mixed, place both on a work surface and knead the two pieces together.

Dredging

Whenever fruits or nuts are added into a batter, they tend to drift to the bottom when inserted in the oven and before the batter begins to solidify. Lightly dredging the fruits or nuts with flour and shaking off the excess is enough to hold those ingredients in suspension long enough for the batter to become dense.

Folding In

Folding is a very important technique used by bakers. The best example is folding beaten egg whites into a batter most often made from beaten egg yolks and sugar—no leavening. A small amount of the beaten whites is added to the egg yolk mixture and mixed in by hand using a spatula until completely absorbed. I like to think of the step as tempering the egg yolk mixture, thinning it out so it can accept the balance of the beaten whites without knocking out the air from the whites. It is the aeration that substitutes for leavening and makes for light and tender cakes. The whites go into the bowl on top of the yolk mixture and should be folded in as follows. Insert the spatula very gently down into the center of the bowl and with a twisting motion bring it up through the yolks, along the side of the bowl, then twist it upside down over the top. Turn the bowl slightly and repeat. Continue turning the bowl, folding in the whites, and working with a very light hand until the whites and yolks are combined. A few lumps are okay; they will disappear during baking. Using the spatula, carefully transfer the mixture to a baking dish. When folding in nuts, fruits, or melted chocolate, the same technique is used but these heavy ingredients are dredged with flour and folded in with a minimum of turning.

Glazing Bread

Following are the four methods that the baker uses immediately before baking to provide a proper finish or glaze to the bread. Each recipe will direct which method to use.

Cornstarch Solution

Before slashing the top of the bread and placing it in the oven, the tops may be brushed with a pastry brush dipped into a cornstarch solution made as follows. While bringing 1 cup water to a boil, dissolve 2 tablespoons cornstarch in ¼ cup cold water. Whisk this slurry into the boiling water until it thickens and becomes clear. This solution may be kept for several days. For a high shine, brush a second time as soon as the bread emerges from the oven. I use the cornstarch solution for breads that should have a glaze, such as sour rye bread; I use water (see below) for French- and Italian-style breads.

Egg Wash

Egg wash is applied on certain breads, rolls, and yeast cakes, such as challah, as well as egg rolls, knots, egg twist breads, and brioche, where a dark, mahogany-hued gloss is called for. Breads that are brushed with a whole egg or egg yolk solution are baked without steam. An egg wash glaze is made by lightly beating a whole egg or yolk with 1 tablespoon water. A pinch of salt is often added. The solution is brushed (painted) over the bread with a pastry brush. If yolks are used, the color will be deeper, but care must be taken so that the glaze does not burn. Often these types of baked goods will be brushed twice—once before the bread is proofed and a second time before it goes into the oven. The first coating is always allowed to dry before the second coating is applied.

Egg White Glaze

Some recipes call for a glaze of lightly beaten egg white with or without the addition of a small amount of water. This glaze is not used often in commercial bakeries. The results are somewhat similar to the cornstarch solution, which gives superior results and is more economical. If you are curious about the difference, try them both and compare.

Water

The simplest bread wash is tap water used at room temperature. This is used when a high shine is not desirable or as a substitute for the cornstarch solution described above. Water brushed on the bread before baking aids the steaming process in the oven, which enhances the development of the final color of the crust. Brushing the bread when it emerges from the oven imparts a slight sheen to the finished product. When baking several breads, you might try brushing one when it comes out of the oven and leaving another dry. Compare the difference and use the method you prefer. Some breads, such as country breads, which are dusted with flour before baking, are not glazed at all.

Greasing Pans

Pans should be greased thoroughly so that the baked goods will not stick to them when done. The pans should be clean and completely dry before greasing. You may use a brush, a rag, or even your fingers. Shortening, vegetable oil, butter, margarine, pan sprays, or other cooking fats may be used. Oils work well with most breads and rolls; however, if you encounter any sticking problems use a hardened shortening. Cake pans require a heavier greasing, and hard fats are best for this purpose. Butter is often applied to impart extra flavor to the baked goods. Antistick sprays work well; they allow you to ensure full coverage, get into hard-to-reach corners, and apply a thinner coat than is possible by hand. Pans that have a nonstick coating require less grease, but I do like to coat them lightly. Often a quick spray or a few drops of oil spread out with a paper towel will be sufficient. Steel and iron pans that have been properly seasoned (see this page) also require very little grease. Aluminum can be seasoned, but it does not hold the seasoning well and generally requires a heavier greasing. Commercial bakeries often use special pan greases that have better releasing properties and can be used frugally, and many bakers mix their own. Here is my recipe for pan grease for use in the home kitchen. It will keep indefinitely when stored in a cool dry area or refrigerated. If refrigerated, it should come to room temperature before using.

Mix the shortening, oil, flour, and lecithin together in a mixer or with a wire whisk. Add more flour if the mixture is runny. Lecithin gives the fats better releasing qualities and allows you to use a thinner coat. When lecithin is used, grease the pans sparingly.

YIELD Makes about ¾ cup.

NOTE If the oil separates out on standing, it can be stirred back in and a little more flour added.

Lecithin is available in an emulsified form, which is preferable. Check in natural foods stores. A little lecithin goes a long way.

Measuring

Always measure carefully. All measurements should be level. Most recipes can be doubled or cut in half to change the yield. A mistake often made by professionals is to multiply or divide mentally instead of writing out the new measurements. Invariably the baker forgets to double or divide one ingredient or will omit one entirely. I always write down the entire converted recipe, then check it against the original before beginning to mix. Following the same reasoning, I have come to write out the recipe or just the ingredient list each time I bake and cross out each item as I use it. This takes a few extra minutes and has saved the day for me on many occasions.

Meringue

Beating egg whites until they become light and fluffy makes meringue. The addition of meringue to a batter takes the place of leavening. Meringue is also used as a topping when baked in the oven or browned with a torch and to make egg white pastries and other sweets. To make meringue, start with a very clean bowl and beater; if even a little bit of fat or egg yolk is present, the meringue will not whip up. Using a wire whisk, rotary hand beater, or a stand mixer fitted with the whip attachment, start beating at a slow speed. When the mixture begins to froth, add a pinch of cream of tartar or a few drops of lemon juice. Continue mixing, adding any required vanilla or liqueur, until tracks begin to form in the meringue. Increase the speed and continue mixing until the egg whites fluff up and form cloud-like puffs at the top and sides of the bowl. Decrease the speed to low and slowly add sugar until fully absorbed. Whip up once more at a higher speed until the puffs barely begin to come away from the sides of the bowl. Do not over mix or the meringue will fall in the oven; err on the soft side. When the beater is lifted out, stiff peaks should remain standing. With a bit of practice, you will quickly become expert at this. To add the meringue to a batter, temper the batter with the addition of about one-quarter to one-third of the meringue. Then, using a spatula, fold in the balance of the meringue by cutting down to the center of the bowl and then, with a turning motion, running the spatula up along the sides of the bowl and turning it over toward the center as you come up. (Do not beat the whites down.) Rotate the bowl slightly. Repeat folding and rotating the bowl until the whites are absorbed. Bake immediately.

Microwave Tricks

Here are several shortcuts using the microwave oven in the bread-making process.

Sour, in the Refrigerator

Several hours can be saved waiting for the first stage of sourdough bread to rise by microwaving the sour. Keep it in the refrigerator in a microwavable container. When needed, microwave on medium or on the defrost cycle for 10 seconds, then check the temperature with a chef’s instant-read thermometer. The goal is to bring it to room temperature (68°F to 70°F) and no higher; if the temperature gets too high, the sour will die. If necessary, microwave for one or two more 10-second periods to reach room temperature.

Proofing

Use the microwave oven as a steam box, where the loaves will rise in half the usual time. Bring 1 to 2 cups of water to a boil in the microwave. Place the water in a corner of the oven and put in the bread. Keep the oven turned off. The hot water generates steam, speeding the rising time. (The microwave without the steam makes an effective sealed cabinet to dry-proof some yeast doughs.)

Defrosting

Frozen unbaked bread dough can be defrosted following the microwave manufacturer’s instructions. Once the dough is defrosted, use the steaming method described above to proof. The steaming method can also be used for the initial defrosting.

Milk

There are three milk products that are most useful in baking bread.

Skim Milk Powder

Dry skim milk powder is easy to store and use and can be mixed into the dough in its dry form. For 1 cup whole milk, substitute ⅓ cup skim milk powder and 1 cup water. Buttermilk is available as a powder, too; use ¼ cup powder to 1 cup water.

Buttermilk

Buttermilk or sour milk tenderizes yeast breads and makes them lighter. Buttermilk is called for in many recipes for quick bread and muffins. When preparing several baked goods that require buttermilk, it is convenient to make your own buttermilk. My method is fast to do at home with little fuss. To 4 cups water at room temperature (70°F to 80°F), add 1⅓ cups dry skim milk powder and 1 cup prepared buttermilk, also at room temperature. You will have to use store-bought buttermilk the first time. Stir until dissolved. Leave uncovered at room temperature until clabbered (12 to 18 hours), then refrigerate and use as needed. Always reserve 1 cup as the starter for the next batch. If buttermilk is not available, substitute quick sour milk, below.

Quick Sour Milk

Sour milk can be made by a slower clabbering process, but for baking it can be made quickly by adding 1 teaspoon vinegar or lemon juice to 1 cup skim milk. Allow to stand until clabbered (about 10 minutes). This sour milk can be substituted for buttermilk in any recipe.

Nuts, Toasting

I have found that toasting nuts before adding them to baked goods significantly enhances the flavor of the finished product. Even when I grind nuts to be used in batters, I toast them before grinding. It is very simple to toast nuts in one of two ways. A small amount can be toasted quickly on the stovetop by tossing or shaking in a dry, heavy sauté pan over medium heat until lightly browned (about 10 minutes). Larger amounts can be spread out on a baking sheet and baked in a 350°F oven, shaking or lightly stirring once or twice, for 10 to 15 minutes.

Filberts, or hazelnuts, are skinned after toasting by swirling them in a sieve or by placing them on a towel and rubbing until most of the skins fall away. Not all of the skins will come off, but this will hardly be discernible in the finished product.

Onion Filling and Topping

Use this recipe in onion bread, pumpernickel, rye, onion rolls, onion sticks, focaccia, pizza, and wherever else your imagination leads you.

Mix the onions, poppy seeds, and vegetable oil together and season with salt to taste.

Peel

A peel is a long-handled, paddle-shaped wooden instrument used mainly by bakers for inserting or removing baked goods, such as bread or pies, from an oven hearth (explained below). When you have become comfortable with your bread-baking ability, you may want to begin baking on an oven hearth and using a peel. (Bread and rolls are better when baked directly on an oven hearth. Development of the bottom crust is enhanced and the bread rises higher.)

You will need an oven stone or quarry tiles to serve as the hearth. Dust the peel well with cornmeal or flour, place the proofed bread carefully on the end of the peel, insert the peel into the oven, and sheave (shove) the bread off the peel for a few inches onto the hearth. Raise the peel an inch or two and swiftly draw it back. The action is like snatching a tablecloth out from under a full set of tableware. I jiggle the bread around on the peel before inserting it into the oven to make sure that it is not sticking. Then, with the back of the peel slightly elevated, I sheave the bread onto the hearth and pull back.

A good way to learn about sheaving is to use a peel for inserting breads in loaf pans into the oven. This will allow you to get a feel for sheaving without damaging free-form breads.

When first learning how to pick up and place a proofed free-form bread onto the peel, do not let the bread rise fully. If it is too soft, it will collapse while being lifted. If this happens, reshape the bread and try again. It is possible to proof some breads directly on the peel; however, make sure that the bottom of the loaf is not stuck to the peel before sheaving.

Proofing Bread

The final rising of the bread just before baking is called proofing. This should not be confused with the proofing of yeast, discussed elsewhere (see this page). Full proof means the maximum growth that the loaf can attain without collapsing in the oven. Generally the breads are covered while proofing so that a skin does not form, which might prevent a bread from fully rising. When allowed to rise on the work surface or out in the open in the kitchen environment the breads should be covered with a cloth that has been rubbed with flour, or in some applications with a slightly moistened cloth. I often use a plain kitchen towel without any further treatment. It is best to experiment in your own kitchen and use what suits you. When breads are risen in steam environments, the breads are not covered, unless in a manner specified. In hot weather, bread will rise quickly and can be left out on the counter as described above. In colder weather or in a drafty room, it is best to proof the bread in an enclosed environment, such as in a kitchen cabinet or in the oven without any heat. See “Steam, for Proofing,” this page.

Overproofed Bread

Bread is overproofed when all the nutrients in the dough that feed the yeast cells have been used up or not enough are left to provide for the final burst of growth that allows the bread to spring up in the oven. If this occurs, the bread will fall in the oven. It will come out flat, improperly baked, and poor or raw tasting. Sometimes overproofed dough can be salvaged prior to baking if it is punched down, reshaped, and allowed to rise once more. It will not be perfect, but it will be an edible bread (in most instances!).

Underproofed Bread

Underproofed bread will burst or split in the oven. It may be misshapen, come out too small, or be too heavy, or the texture will not be right. Each recipe will give you the general amount of growth necessary; for example, “the bread should come up slightly over the top of the pan,” or “set aside until the loaf doubles in size.” Most doughs allow a great deal of leeway, and using a moderate amount of care will always produce a satisfactory loaf.

Determining Proof

For those who wish to have more control over the proofing process, this is how the pros determine the amount of proof: they do it by eye, touch, and experience, which is almost never discussed in books on home baking and is generally ignored. There is no great mystery involved. With experience, anyone can quickly become competent at judging. Before you bake breads, always gently touch the side of the loaf with one finger. A fully proofed loaf will yield slightly to the delicate touch. In the beginning, gauge the proof by the amount of growth suggested in the recipe (double in size, for example). With every test, observe the finished result. You will quickly gain experience and in a short time will have taught yourself. Producing a loaf of bread that has risen to the point of perfection will give you a great deal of satisfaction.

Not all breads require full proof. Occasionally a recipe will call for half proof or some similar instruction. An explanation in the recipe will help you make this judgment. With experience, you will be able to alter the amount of proof to suit yourself.

Pumpernickel Color

Pumpernickel color, also known as caramel color or burnt sugar, is used to give pumpernickel bread its dark, or sometimes black, color. You might ask your friendly local baker to sell you some pumpernickel color, or you can make it yourself with the recipe below. (Or you may substitute 2 tablespoons molasses, 2 tablespoons cocoa powder, or 2 tablespoons instant coffee granules for ¼ cup pumpernickel color.) Caramel color can be purchased in ethnic markets but it will not produce the same, almost black, color.

In a heavy saucepan over low heat, melt the sugar in the 1 tablespoon water over low heat. Increase the heat to medium-high, cover the pan, bring to a boil, and boil for 2 minutes without stirring. Add the cream of tartar and continue to boil, uncovered, until the sugar is almost black in color. Remove the pan from the heat. The sugar will continue to cook and darken. Allow it to begin to cool. Using extreme care, add the boiling water (the sugar will boil up and may spatter). Stir to dissolve, then cool to room temperature. Pumpernickel color will keep indefinitely at room temperature in a covered jar or plastic container.

For easier cleanup, soak the saucepan and utensils in hot water to dissolve the caramelized sugar remaining on them, and whenever you use pumpernickel color, wet the measuring spoon or cup with cold water first.

Putting Bread By

There are many good ways of keeping and storing breads. Crusty bread can be harder to store, since the crust tends to soften when enclosed in an airtight wrap. Crusty bread will keep for several days in a bread box when placed in a paper bag or waxed bakery-type bag. By allowing the bread to breathe, these bags help maintain some of the original crispness. In retail bakeries, breads are kept unwrapped on the display shelves so that the crusts remain crisp.

Some people actually prefer day-old bread, and stale bread can always be toasted. To refresh crusty bread, wrap it in aluminum foil and warm in a preheated oven or toaster oven at 325°F. Or you can try the newest method we’re using at home. Cut fresh, crusty bread into portions big enough for two people and large enough to stand on their own when placed in a toaster oven or in the oven itself. Store in double plastic bags in the freezer. When ready to use, move the bread from the freezer to the refrigerator and let defrost overnight or for at least a few hours. Otherwise, microwave each portion on high for no more that 20 seconds or the bread will become chewy. It is okay if the portions are not completely thawed. Place them in a toaster oven (preferably) or in a preheated oven and toast, crust side up—my secret for crisping the crust, not toasting the bread. We have been doing this for a few years now, and it results in bread that’s almost indiscernible from a freshly baked loaf. Microwave ovens, when used at medium heat for a very short time, will soften or defrost bread, but the crust will not crisp. Bread kept in a sealed plastic bag will stay soft longer, but the crust will soften quickly. Warm, humid air increases the probability of mold forming on the bread. Bread kept wrapped and refrigerated will resist molding.

Freezing is an excellent way to store bread without compromising quality. When only several slices are needed each day, the bread can be presliced and frozen. Defrost as many slices as are desired. The slices come to room temperature quickly, or they can be toasted while frozen. Well-wrapped loaves keep for up to 6 months in the freezer, although they taste better if used sooner.

Freezing unbaked bread allows you to prepare extra loaves at one mixing and bake fresh, hot breads whenever desired. For best results, allow the frozen, unbaked loaves to thaw slowly overnight in the refrigerator. Alternatively, you can defrost them at room temperature or place them in a warm enclosed space—a cabinet or a warm empty oven, for example—and allow them to thaw and rise slowly over a period of several hours. For quicker results, place the bread in a warm, moist place and defrost and proof in one operation. Frozen unbaked bread can be defrosted in the microwave oven following instructions in the manufacturer’s handbook (see “Microwave Tricks,” this page).

Before the advent of home refrigeration, most cooks made bread once a week. Breads were kept longer by baking very large loaves, as much as 5 pounds in weight. These breads took longer to bake and retained more moisture. Years back, my bakery sold 3-pound loaves of table rye. They were wide, stubby loaves and very flavorful. They made he-man-sized sandwiches. If you bake large loaves—2 pounds or more—at home, they require longer baking and will be tastier than smaller breads. Try it!

Raisins, Soaking

Many people prefer the flavor and texture of plump raisins in their bread, which you can achieve by soaking them. Measure the required amount of raisins, cover with warm water, and let soak for 15 to 20 minutes. Drain well before use. When mixing doughs by machine, be careful when adding plumped raisins. They are delicate and crush easily. When in doubt, knead them in by hand after the dough has been mixed. For a gourmet touch, soak raisins overnight in enough rum or brandy to cover.

Refrigeration

Refrigerating retards growth of yeast doughs, slowing down the rising process. Dough and unbaked loaves can be retarded at almost any stage of the bread-making process. Rising at a slow rate, they can be kept for many hours, even overnight, freeing the baker to leave or attend to other tasks.

When yeast dough is fully risen, it can be punched down and frozen, or made up into loaves. The loaves are then proofed and baked, or frozen before proofing for future use. Unbaked bread can also be left in the refrigerator overnight to proof slowly and may be baked the following day. Raw dough or bread should not be kept unfrozen for more than a day. When frozen, it begins to lose some strength after 1 week at home freezer temperatures. Although frozen dough can be kept for 3 to 6 months, many years of experience have taught me that there is some loss of flavor. Wrap well when freezing for long periods; I always use heavy duty plastic wrap followed by a ziplock plastic bag. Date the package so that the oldest can be used first. It is also wise to note the contents of the bag; when frozen for any length of time it is often difficult to tell what kind of dough is in the wrapper.

Any dough that has been frozen can be thawed, shaped into a loaf, and baked in the normal manner. Previously shaped loaves, rolls, croissants, and other ready-to-proof items can be made at a convenient time, frozen, then baked as desired. Slow defrosting, overnight in the refrigerator, yields the best results.

Rising

Before baking, bread dough requires two risings during which a chemical process must take place.

First Rise

After kneading, the dough is allowed to rise. Rising is caused by the action of enzymes in the yeast cells, which feed upon the sugar and starch present in the flour. In the first rise the sugar feeds the yeast cells, which give off carbon dioxide gas. The gas is trapped in pockets formed by gluten in the flour and the dough begins to rise.

The dough is usually left to rise until it doubles in size. If left too long, the yeast will use up the sugar upon which it feeds and the dough will collapse. Test by pressing a finger into the risen dough. If the dough is still young (not risen enough), the indent from your finger will begin to rise and disappear. If the indent shrinks and begins to collapse, the dough is old. A ready dough, in between these two extremes, is preferable, although one that is a little young is acceptable. Dough that has become old may often be revived by kneading out all the air, then shaping into a bread and allowing the dough to rise again until is proofed.

Punching Down

Punching down the dough forces out all the old gases and prepares the dough for the next rise. Press down with your hand into the center of the dough so that it collapses. Grasp both sides, bring them into the center of the dough, and press down again. Turn a quarter turn and repeat. Turn out onto a lightly floured surface and press out all the remaining air with your palms. Shape into a ball once more, cover, and let the dough rest for 5 to 10 minutes.

Second Rise (Proofing)

At this point the dough is shaped and allowed to rise before baking. During the second rise, starches in the flour are converted into food for the yeast, allowing the bread to rise once more. (Steam may be used to facilitate this process; see “Steam, for Proofing,” this page.) When the bread doubles in size, it is ready for the oven. Some breads, such as country loaves, require a third rise to give the bread a large-holed texture and chewy quality.

Seasoning Pans

I always “season” my baking pans so that they require very little grease or oil and the baked goods slip out of the pans without sticking. This is the method I use: Wash and scrub the pans thoroughly, then dry them and place in a preheated 425°F oven for 25 minutes. Remove them from the oven and, while they are still hot, apply a thin coat of vegetable oil to the entire interior surface with a brush or rag, carefully getting into the corners and along the rim. Use caution to avoid getting burned. Once the pan is cool, wipe it dry with a paper towel. Seasoning works best with steel pans. Aluminum pans may also be seasoned, but they have to be redone sooner. Do not season Teflon or similar coated pans.

Seasoned pans reserved for baking should merely be wiped dry with a clean, soft cloth or paper towel after each use. If you must wash them, use only water and a soft brush or nylon pad. Do not scour; above all, do not use steel wool or soap. Dry scrubbing with salt works well for stuck-on crumbs. If sticking eventually becomes a problem, the pan must be reseasoned.

Pans that have lost their shine and are black from a great deal of use produce baked goods with richer color and better crust.

Shaping a Loaf

Shaping a loaf is a critical step in producing a professional-looking loaf with the proper texture. Most instructions merely tell you to roll into a tube shape or roll up like a jelly roll. This type of instruction is insufficient for achieving a perfect loaf. The dough must be molded tightly and have the appropriate shape to bake correctly. A little extra time spent in shaping the loaves will result in better breads every time.

We begin with four basic shapes, the pan loaf, the Vienna loaf, French or Italian loaves, and the round loaf. Other shapes will be discussed as needed.

Pan Loaf

A pan loaf is baked in a rectangular bread pan of the type discussed on this page. With your hands or a rolling pin, press a piece of dough into a rectangular shape and fold it in thirds, right over left, two-thirds of the way, then left over right. Flatten out with your hands.

Without turning the dough, fold the top down to the center. With your knuckles or the heel of your palm, press a seam down into the center of the dough. Turn the bottom half up to the center and seal the edge with your knuckles or the heel of your palm. Now roll and fold the top half over the bottom and seal the seam again. Squeeze and roll back and forth to elongate. If necessary, lengthen the loaf further with a back-and-forth motion, working from the center of the loaf to the ends. Roll the seam around so that it is centered on the bottom. The loaf should be tight and extend the length of the baking pan. Keep the seam down when you place the bread in the pan so that it cannot crack open while baking.

The pan loaf may also be baked as a free-form loaf, either on an oven stone or tile hearth or on a baking sheet. In my bakery, we used this shape for sandwich rye or pumpernickel bread.

Vienna Loaf

The Vienna shape is a free-form loaf baked on the hearth or on a baking sheet; it is wide in the center and narrows to a point on both ends. It can be molded as a pan loaf (see above), then, with one hand on either end, roll the tips down with your palms in a back-and-forth motion until a pointed end is achieved. When rye bread is molded in this fashion, the ends make wonderful eating. Shaping the loaves with a blunt end gives more uniform slices and results in more sandwich slices from the loaf. The Vienna loaf can also be made jelly-roll fashion using the method describe below for French or Italian loaves.

French or Italian Loaves and Baguettes

The shorter French and Italian shapes can be made up as pan loaves (see above) and then elongated with a rolling, pressing motion of the palms, beginning in the center of the loaf and working out toward the ends. The ends can be left blunt or pointed.

A second version, necessary for longer loaves, is made in jelly-roll fashion. The dough is pressed out or rolled with a pin into a long rectangular shape. Starting from the top, form a short roll or lip along the entire length, then press it down with your fingertips. Continue rolling or folding, pressing down a seam with each roll. As the roll gets bigger, use your knuckles or the heel of your hand. Continue rolling and seal the last turn firmly. The loaf may be elongated with a rolling, stretching, back-and-forth motion, working from the center to the ends. The seam, or closure, should be centered at the bottom of the formed loaf when done.

If you begin by pressing or rolling the dough out into a circular shape instead of a rectangle, then by proceeding in jelly-roll fashion you can create the classic Vienna bread shape, with a wide, high center and low, pointed ends, or a longer Italian bread version.

Round Loaf

Round loaves are shaped into a smooth, tight ball.

Sprouts, Wheat Berry

It’s easy to sprout seeds or beans in your own kitchen. Wheat berries can be purchased in natural foods stores and some markets. Don’t buy the variety found in garden or pet supply stores. These are chemically treated and are not fit for human consumption. The same berries that you sprout can be used for Cracked Wheat Bread (this page) or cooked up into a hearty hot breakfast cereal.

For every cup of sprouts, you will need ¼ cup wheat berries, a clean mason jar, and some cheesecloth, a clean nylon stocking, or a commercially available sprouting screen. Special sprouting jars are also available. Place the wheat berries in the jar with water to cover, affix the cheesecloth over the top with a rubber band, and soak overnight. In the morning, spill out the water through the cloth and allow the jar to drain well. Place the jar on its side in a dark, warm cupboard or closet. In the evening, pour in tepid water to cover, swish around, and drain. You may reserve the drained water for use in any bread recipe.

The next day, once again change the water twice, morning and evening, saving the drained water if desired. Drain well each time. When the sprouts burst forth in 1 to 2 days, you may begin to make your bread. Some bakers prefer to allow the sprouts to grow until they are the length of the berry, which takes about a day and provides additional nutrients. Either way works well in bread making. If you spread out the ready sprouts on a dish or tray and leave them in sunlight for 20 minutes or so, they will manufacture their own chlorophyll and begin to turn green, adding to their nutrient value.

Stale Bread

What does the baker do with leftover bread in the bakery? The successful baker converts or recycles stale bread into fresh products. Altus (see this page) is one way to use old bread. Here are a few other ways to recycle stale bread in the home kitchen.

Bread Crumbs

Dry bread may be grated by hand or with an electric grinder, food processor, or blender. If you use a blender, prepare small amounts at a time. Add your favorite herbs while processing.

Bread Pudding

Use a favorite recipe for bread pudding or try a new one, and bear in mind that you can make savory bread puddings, too.

Bruschetta

These are thick slices of Italian or French country bread, toasted, rubbed with garlic and olive oil, and topped with a tomato salsa or other toppings. Use them as an appetizer or a snack.

Croutons

Trim the crusts from sliced bread and dice the bread. Place on a baking sheet and brown in a 375°F oven, or lightly fry until golden brown in color. For a variation, sauté some garlic in oil, discard the garlic, and sauté the croutons in the garlicky oil. Alternatively, soak the croutons in oil and vinegar and toss with a salad.

French Toast

Make French toast with thick slices of Challah (this page). This is a delicious Sunday brunch.

Garlic Bread

Split a long loaf of French or Italian bread most of the way through, then spread with a mixture of half melted butter and half oil (preferably olive oil). Sprinkle with sautéed minced garlic (granulated or powdered garlic may substituted). Wrap in aluminum foil and freeze, or bake immediately at 350°F for 15 to 20 minutes. The wrapped bread can also be grilled on the barbeque. Try toasting the cut side on the grill before buttering. Make several pieces per person. For a special treat, sprinkle a bit of fines herbes (made by mixing 1 tablespoon each dried chives, tarragon, parsley, and chervil) on garlic bread and top with grated Parmesan or Romano cheese.

Rusks

Place thin slices of hard bread on a baking sheet and bake at 250°F until lightly browned. Before baking, the rusks can be flavored by sprinkling with herbs or spices. Try drizzling them with olive oil, then sprinkling with dried rosemary before baking.

Stuffing

Tear or cube day-old bread or rolls for use in stuffing. The pieces can be bagged and frozen for future use.

Thickening

Use stale bread to thicken soups. Bread soups are standards in Mediterranean cuisine.

Toast

Bread that is a day or two old can be toasted and served hot. Split long French-style loaves and toast them in the oven, broiler, or toaster oven. I like to scoop out most of the soft center with a spoon before toasting. Smooth on butter or any spread, or sprinkle with olive oil and stuff with your favorite sandwich filling. Rye toast is always a special treat. My grandmother used to rub the crusts of sliced sour rye bread with a clove of garlic, then toast the slices. She served it with hot tea in a glass, often for an after school snack. If that’s not good enough, she also spread the garlic rubbed toast with warm beef marrow. For a real cholesterol jag, they would serve garlic toasted rye with a spread of rendered chicken fat, rare roast beef, and a slice of Bermuda onion.

Steam, for Proofing

Proofing is the final rise. When the shaped loaf is ready to be proofed, there are many ways to induce it to rise. The usual method is to place the loaves in a warm spot, free from drafts, but there are several alternatives, both in the home kitchen and in the bakery. An understanding of how bread is proofed commercially will help you find your own method at home.

The oldest and best method is very simple. The bread or rolls are placed in wooden boxes approximately 30 inches square and 3 to 4 inches high. The boxes are dusted with flour and the bread or rolls are spaced carefully so as not to touch one another as they grow. A second box is placed on top of the first and the process is repeated, filling the boxes and stacking them higher and higher. The warm air and moisture in a bakery is perfect for allowing the bread to rise slowly. Rising time can be controlled simply by crisscrossing the boxes, allowing the corners of the boxes to stay open and thus slowing down the rising time. This is necessary if the ovens are backed up or if the baker must attend to other tasks.

Since no additional heat or moisture is supplied, the dough rises naturally. Bakers describe this method as “giving natural proof.” Although this method takes longer than using a steam box with a burner (see below), it still produces the best results to this day. In the old bakeries with the huge brick-lined ovens the heat could be oppressive, but then there was no need to add heat or steam for the breads to rise very quickly.

An “improvement” to this method involves the use of a special cabinet called a steam box or proofing cabinet. The cabinet is wide enough to accommodate the wooden boxes on rack-type shelves. The boxes are stacked one above the other, with several inches of space between each shelf. At the bottom of the cabinet is a small burner and a trough or container filled with water, which is allowed to boil. Heat and steam circulate around the boxes, causing the breads to rise rapidly, thereby reducing the rising time dramatically. There is a penalty exacted, however, in that the breads or rolls never rise quite as much as with the natural method.

Through the years, these proofing cabinets have evolved until today we have cabinets that accommodate multiple rolling racks, with the baked goods on pallets or baking pans. The racks are rolled into the steam cabinets, which have sophisticated temperature and humidity controls that allow quicker rising times and are adjustable to the best conditions for the type of dough being proofed.

Fortunately, we can do as well or better in the home by using the natural proof method. The bread is placed in a warm, draft-free spot, covered with a damp or flour-rubbed cloth or towel, and allowed to rise slowly. Alternatively, the bread can be placed in a closed kitchen cabinet or a home-built wooden box. You can also proof bread in an empty oven that has been heated for just a few minutes and then turned off. In this era of modern conveniences, I often allow my doughs or pan breads to rise in a microwave oven that is not turned on (see “Microwave Tricks,” this page).

While baking one bread in the oven, I often proof the next dough on top of the warm range, covering the bread with a damp cloth. If you try this, be careful not to allow a skin to develop on the bread, since this will keep it from rising. I have a friend who tells me that she proofs her bread in the dishwasher after putting it on the heat cycle for a few minutes.

Another simple method for proofing bread is to place the loaves on a wire rack over a pan filled with boiling water. The breads can be covered with a cloth or cardboard box. As you can see, the possibilities are as endless as the baker’s ingenuity.

Steam, in Baking

Steam introduced into the oven during the baking process is the key to developing a proper crust on bread. Essential during the first part of the baking process, steam allows for better rising in the oven and slows development of the crust. The steam keeps the crust moist so that it does not split while it rises in the oven. Steam is also necessary for giving the bread its sheen.

In bakeries, steam is usually produced in a boiler or steam generator and injected into the oven while the bread is baking. After the crust develops, the steam is shut off so that the sugars in the crust can caramelize, producing color and flavor.

In the home kitchen, the generally accepted method of introducing steam into the oven is to place a pan of boiling water in the bottom of the oven before putting in the bread. Other methods include spraying water on the bread several times during the baking process with an ordinary household spray bottle. These methods really do not give the burst of steam necessary to do a professional job, so I suggest the following method for use at home. Though still a compromise, this method results in a crustier, more professional-looking bread: Place an empty roasting pan or other heavy pan on the floor of the oven 5 to 10 minutes before baking, so it gets hot. Before slashing the breads prior to putting them in the oven, brush the tops with water or a cornstarch solution (see this page). I prefer the cornstarch method for breads that should have a shiny crust, such as Jewish rye bread, and the water method for French- and Italian-style breads. (Breads that are brushed with an egg wash are baked without steam.)

When ready to bake, place the bread in the oven and carefully toss 6 to 8 ice cubes into the hot pan, or pour in 1 cup of boiling water, and immediately close the oven door.

Caution: When using boiling water, wear a glove and keep your face away from the open oven door, since there will be a strong burst of steam when the boiling water hits the hot pan. Once you’ve closed the oven, do not open the door to peek for at least the first 10 minutes or the steam will escape.

When you remove the bread from the oven, place it on a rack to cool, then brush the top with water or cornstarch solution once more. The results will astonish you. Your bread will look as professional as any that comes from a fine bakery.

What Went Wrong?

Why bad things happen and how to fix them.

Bread Has No Flavor (Tastes Flat) or Dough Rises Too Fast

NO SALT. Forgetting to add salt is the most common error in bread baking. A good habit to get into is to measure the salt first and place it in a small container or on a square of waxed paper next to the work bowl. If you forget to add it, you will see it, avoiding any doubt. Salt retards the action of the yeast, and if left out, the dough will rise much faster than normal. Salt that was left out may be added later by dissolving it in a little water and kneading it in thoroughly.

Dough Does Not Rise or Doesn’t Rise Properly

NO YEAST. You will note that most of the recipes in this book call for yeast and water to be the first ingredients used in mixing. This is done to ensure that the yeast is not forgotten. If it is not the first ingredient, sprinkle the dry yeast over a small amount of warm water (¼ to ½ cup) and place it next to the work bowl so that it will be visible if left out. Deduct the amount of water used from the total liquid in the recipe. If forgotten, the yeast can be added to the dough with thorough kneading. Sometimes the yeast is added in the dry stage. Leave the packet next to the machine or even on top of it so that it will be seen if forgotten.

DOUGH IS TOO SOFT. Not enough flour was added to the mix. If the dough is too soft, it will not have enough body to rise properly or hold whatever shape you mold it into. Add flour in small amounts and knead it thoroughly into the dough. If the bread has already risen, it can often be saved by squeezing or punching it down, adding flour in small amounts at a time, and kneading until thoroughly incorporated. The dough should rise again and bake quite well.

DOUGH IS TOO STIFF. When too stiff, the dough has no elasticity. It will remain a solid, heavy lump, unwilling to rise or allow itself to be shaped. Add water a teaspoonful at a time and work it thoroughly into the dough.

DOUGH WAS IMPROPERLY KNEADED. Bread must be worked well to develop the dough. Yeast is a living single-celled organism that reproduces and multiplies in the dough, giving off carbon dioxide gas. Gluten, a wheat protein, is very malleable and continually stretches and forms thousands of little pockets that entrap the gas and expand. This is how the dough rises. Kneading develops and enhances gluten’s elasticity, so you must work the dough long enough to make all of the gluten resilient. Stretching while kneading helps activate the gluten. Slamming the dough down on the work surface aerates the dough, making more pockets that will expand.

YEAST WAS NOT ACTIVATED, OR WAS STALE OR OUTDATED. If the yeast wasn’t omitted and was activated properly, but the bread rose improperly, look to the yeast itself as the source of the problem. Yeast cells can be killed by improper storage or age. If the yeast is suspect, proof it first. (See “Proofing Yeast,” this page.)

Baked Bread Sags

The finished bread is soggy or shows a wet, fallen section when cut.

BREAD WAS OVERPROOFED. The loaf was allowed to grow too much in the last rise before baking and thus collapses in the oven.

GLUTEN IS UNDEVELOPED. The dough was not kneaded long enough to develop the gluten. As a result, the bread does not rise properly and falls while in the oven.

Bread Is Gummy or Wet When Baked

BREAD IS UNDERBAKED. The oven thermostat is inaccurate. Always use a good oven thermometer to ensure proper temperature. At high altitudes increase the oven temperature by 2°F for every 1,000 feet above sea level. To test if the bread is fully baked, tap the bottom of the loaf with your fingertips and lightly squeeze the sides. A finished loaf will emit a hollow thump and the sides will be firm. If the crust is too dark and the loaf is underbaked, use a lower oven temperature. My secret: if you are baking regularly, you will discover that the same kind of bread—rye bread, for example—will always bake for almost the exact amount of time, each time you bake. In the bakery it became intuitive to know exactly when the bread was ready. If you suddenly realize that the breads are baked much faster or slower than usual, most assuredly the oven thermostat is operating off temperature. This happens to all thermostats used in high heat situations. In the bakery, we had to change the thermostats regularly. Home ovens used to have a way to adjust for the temperature difference. Usually when you pulled off the temperature control knob, there was a way to adjust it at the back of the knob. With electronic thermostats we can no longer do this. What I do is adjust my baking time. This way the life of the thermostat can be prolonged. Eventually, the thermostat will need to be changed.

Bottom of Bread Is Burnt

OVEN SHELF IS TOO LOW, If the bottom is burnt, the oven shelf may be too low. Move it up higher.

Top of Bread Is Burnt

OVEN SHELF IS TOO HIGH. If the top is burnt or overbaked and the bottom is soft, try moving the oven shelf lower. Some breads (often those that are brushed with egg wash) tend to burn on top before the bottom is baked. When these breads first begin to brown, they can be covered with a tent made of parchment paper or aluminum foil. The tenting can be removed shortly before the loaves are finished baking if the tops need additional browning.

Crust Has Burst

BREAD WAS UNDERPROOFED. The bread was not given enough time to rise.

TOP WAS NOT SLASHED. The loaf was not slashed or stippled on top. The crust bursts because the gases formed by the yeast cannot escape.

SEAM WAS NOT SEALED. The seam, or closure, made when the loaf was shaped was not sealed well or not properly positioned for the final rise, so it breaks open.

Crust Has Uneven Color

OVEN BAKES UNEVENLY. The oven may have hot spots. Move the loaves once or twice during the baking process. You may have to turn the loaves front to back to ensure even baking. If only one loaf is being baked, center it on the shelf. I often turn the pans back to front when half the baking time has elapsed.

Crust Separates from Loaf

SKIN ALLOWED TO FORM. Before baking, a skin formed on the unbaked bread. Keep the dough in a draft-free area and covered with a cloth so that the surface does not dry out.

OVEN TEMPERATURE TOO LOW, Check with an accurate oven thermometer or bake at a higher temperature.

Bread Has Too Many Holes

DOUGH WAS OVERMIXED. The dough temperature was allowed to go too high. The ingredients were too hot or were overmixed in the processor or electric mixer. (In the country-style breads, large holes are desirable and give the bread a coarse texture and chewy quality. Some recipes call for an extra rise to create this chewy quality.)

BREAD WAS OVERPROOFED. Adjust rising time.

None of the Above

Sometimes whatever went wrong is not immediately obvious. The baker must put on a detective’s hat. Most often the culprit turns out to be a careless baker. Measure carefully. Double-check that no ingredients have been omitted.

CHAPTER THREE
Basic Yeast Bread

To give you a basic understanding of how bread is mixed, two methods of mixing are presented in this chapter using a recipe for milk bread, an easy basic yeast bread. Choose either the straight dough or the sponge method to make this bread, which you will enjoy often.

In the straight dough method, all of the ingredients are combined in one step, the resulting dough is allowed to rise, and then it is shaped into a loaf and given a final rise before baking.

In the sponge method, a quick sponge that takes the place of the first rise is made from flour, yeast, and water. The remaining ingredients are mixed with the sponge to form the dough, which is then mixed, shaped, and given a final rise before baking.

Many bakers feel that the sponge method is a little quicker and produces a softer and better-keeping loaf. Try both methods. Decide which you prefer, while at the same time learning all you need to know about basic bread baking.

Note that for each method, recipes are given for making the bread by hand, in a food processor, or in a stand mixer. For definitions of specific terms used in the recipes, consult the glossary or chapter 2, Bread Making A to Z.

Milk Bread, Straight Dough Method

The old-timer bakers with whom I once worked called this bread “milk bread,” although it is actually white bread. In my opinion, commercially available white bread, which is truly the staff of life and the most widely used bread that we produce, has lost that wonderful quality and flavor of years gone by. What makes white bread wonderful? The crust should be thick and rich in color and have either a good bite or crunch to it. The bread should have a tight texture, toast evenly, slice cleanly, be dense enough to prevent jam from oozing, and tolerate being spread with butter. Next is aroma: Hand a slice of bread to a baker and the first thing that he or she will do is take a deep whiff. The aroma of bread to a baker is like the perfume of a flower to a lady. Last but not least is flavor. The bread should chew well, not taste spongy or cardboardlike, and be bursting with rich flavor. So with respect for the old-time bakers with whom I worked, I use their name, Milk Bread.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the sugar, butter, milk powder, 5 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer the dough to a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Punch down the dough and cut in half. Shape each half into a ball, cover, and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Place in a warm, draft-free area to rise until the loaves form nicely rounded tops and rise above the tops of the pans.

Place the pans on a baking sheet. Slash lengthwise down the center of each loaf with a sharp knife or razor blade. Brush the tops with water or melted butter.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) on the middle shelf of the oven until the loaves are browned and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). The loaves can be removed from the pans for the last 5 minutes of baking for crustier bread. Brush again with water or melted butter and let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In this recipe above, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, sugar, butter, milk powder, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt; mix until smooth. Add 3 more cups of flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough comes together and tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour may be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Process for about 2 to 3 minutes. Do not allow the dough to overheat. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out into a clean, oil-coated bowl. Turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the sugar, butter, 7½ cups of the flour, the milk powder, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More flour may be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to develop the gluten.

Remove the hook, add oil to the bowl, and turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Milk Bread, Sponge Method
 

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge. Add the sugar, butter, milk powder, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more flour in small amounts if the dough is sticky. Knead until the dough is smooth, elastic, and springy (8 to 10 minutes). Cut the dough in half and shape into 2 equal rounds. Allow to rest, covered, for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Place in a warm, draft-free area, cover with a clean cloth, and allow to rise until the loaves come up above the rim of the pans.

Place the pans on a baking sheet. Slash lengthwise down the center of each loaf with a sharp knife or razor blade. Brush the tops with water or melted butter.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) on the middle shelf of the oven until the bread has a rich color and emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). The loaves can be removed from the pans for the last 5 minutes of baking for crustier bread. Brush again with water or melted butter and let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the sponge, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water and flour and process until smooth. Keep the cover in place (the processor’s cover) and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge. Add the sugar, butter, milk powder, 2 cups of the flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl and tries to ride up on top of the blade. Add more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Process until the flour is completely incorporated (1 to 2 minutes). If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand for a few minutes to make the dough more elastic.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and cut in half, shape into 2 equal rounds, and cover. Allow the dough to rest for 10 minutes. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and let rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the sugar, butter, milk powder, 3 cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Turn out onto a floured work surface, cut into thirds, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow the dough to rest 10 minutes. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

CHAPTER FOUR
Corn and Potatoes:
Seeds of the Americas

Corn (maize) and potatoes are two of the most economically important plant crops to modern civilization and are cultivated by more nations than wheat or rice. Both corn and potatoes are native to the Americas, and there is no part of North or South America that does not have its regional corn and potato breads. When Columbus returned to Europe from his first voyage of discovery in 1492, he brought seeds of tomatoes, corn, and potatoes from the new world to Europe.

The contemporary cuisines of the South and the West emphasize corn and potatoes, not only in the dishes that have evolved there but also in adaptations of the breads of Native Americans both north and south of the border.

Anadama Bread

There are many versions of anadama bread using either white or whole-grain flours. I like this recipe with half white, half whole wheat flour. The addition of cornmeal and molasses underscores the bread’s Yankee character.

DOUGH In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the butter, molasses, cornmeal, whole wheat flour, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more all-purpose flour if necessary.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more all-purpose flour in small amounts if the dough is sticky. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes).

RISING Transfer the dough to a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Punch down the dough, cut it in half, and shape into 2 balls. Cover and allow to rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Proof, covered, in a warm, draft-free area until the loaves rise up over the tops of the pans. Brush the loaves with water, then slash once down the length of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) on the middle shelf of the oven until the loaves are browned and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). For the last 5 to 10 minutes of baking, the loaves can be removed from the pans for a crustier bread. Brush with water and let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1¼ cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, butter, molasses, cornmeal, and whole wheat flour and pulse until the ingredients are incorporated. Add 1 cup of the all-purpose flour and the salt and pulse until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Process or pulse for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not overmix. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Or turn out the dough onto a lightly floured work surface and knead lightly by hand for several minutes. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the butter, molasses, cornmeal, whole wheat flour, 2 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more all-purpose flour if necessary.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). More all-purpose flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. If the motor becomes excessively strained, use first speed. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Cornmeal Bread

Cornmeal Bread is the perfect accompaniment to barbecue or beans and anything Southern or Southwestern in origin. It is less sweet than muffins or corn sticks and toasts beautifully. For a soul-satisfying breakfast, try two thick slices of this bread lightly toasted and served with butter and maple syrup, pancake style. Fresh bananas or blueberries in season make a perfect side dish.

Preheat the oven to 425°F. In a small bowl, combine the water, egg, and milk powder and set aside. In a large bowl, combine the sugar, cornmeal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Cut in the shortening until the mixture resembles coarse meal. Add the egg mixture to the flour mixture and stir with a wooden spoon or rotary beater until incorporated. Turn out into a greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pan.

BAKING Bake on the middle shelf of the oven for approximately 25 minutes. A toothpick inserted into the center should come out clean and the top should spring back when lightly pressed with your fingertips.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Add all of the ingredients to the work bowl at one time and pulse for a few seconds until fully incorporated. Turn out into a greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pan. Proceed as in Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER

In the mixing bowl, combine the water, eggs, milk powder, sugar, and shortening; mix at first speed to combine. Add the cornmeal and flour, then add the baking powder and salt and lightly stir them through the flour with your fingertips.

Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the flour is incorporated. Turn out into 4 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Proceed as in Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 4 loaves.

Honey Oatmeal Bread

Honey for natural sweetness, oatmeal to retain moisture and add flavor, and cornmeal for texture all combine to make this unusual breakfast loaf. This wholesome bread can turn eggs and breakfast meat into a Sunday treat. It is my version of a bread I found in an upstate New York mountaintop inn where people drive miles out of their way to have breakfast. They come for the view and the home-cured bacon as well as the wonderful bread. Hardly anyone leaves without a loaf of hot bread to take home. The bread is so tasty that it can stand alone, served warm from the oven or lightly toasted. Serve with butter and jam and a big cup of steaming coffee.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (25 to 30 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge and add the honey, milk powder, and oatmeal. In a separate bowl, combine the cornmeal, 3 cups of the flour, and the salt. Cut in the butter until the mixture resembles coarse meal. Add this mixture to the sponge and stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky. Continue kneading until the dough becomes smooth and silky and has an elastic feel (8 to 10 minutes). Cut the dough in half, shape into rounds, cover, and allow to rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape the rounds into pan loaves (see this page), then place in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans, seam down. Place in a warm, draft-free area, cover with a clean cloth, and allow to rise until the loaves form nicely rounded tops and rise above the top of the pans.

Gently brush the tops with water or melted butter and slash each loaf lengthwise down the center with a sharp knife or razor blade. Place the pans on a baking sheet or oven stone.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the crust is golden brown (35 to 45 minutes). When done, the loaf will emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips. The loaves can be removed from the loaf pans for the last 5 to 10 minutes of baking for crustier bread.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the sponge, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water and flour; process until smooth. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge. Add the honey, milk powder, oatmeal, cornmeal, 3 cups of the flour (1 cup at a time), the salt, and the butter. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not allow the dough to overheat. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand may be necessary to make the dough elastic. Process as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water and flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and let rise until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the honey, milk powder, oatmeal, cornmeal, butter, 4½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the side of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Portuguese Corn Bread

When I first came upon this bread, also known as broa, in a Portuguese bakery, I was surprised because it seemed central European to me. This bread requires a hot oven and it likes a great deal of steam. Made up of a combination of flours, it is heavy, moist, and crusty. Broa keeps well for 1 week or longer in a paper bag in a bread box. Four people can easily devour an entire loaf in one sitting.

Sponge

Boil

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

BOIL While waiting for the sponge to rise, bring the ¾ cup cold water to a rapid boil. Slowly add the cornstarch solution, stirring constantly. Bring to a second boil, remove from the heat, and set aside to cool.

DOUGH When the sponge has risen, add the cooled cornstarch solution, the corn flour, 2 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. The dough should be kept softer than usual.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more bread flour in small amounts if the dough is too sticky. Knead until the dough is smooth (5 to 8 minutes). This should be a soft dough.

SHAPING Dust a baking sheet heavily with flour or cornmeal. Cut the dough in half and shape each half into a ball. Place on the baking sheet, leaving ample room for the loaves to spread. Dust the loaves well with potato flour. Cover and set aside to proof for 45 to 60 minutes. A series of fine cracks should develop in the flour if it is not disturbed.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 475°F. Five minutes before baking, place a heavy shallow pan on the floor of the oven. When the oven is hot, place the bread in the oven. Protecting your face and hands from the initial burst of steam, carefully pour 2 cups of hot water into the pan, then shut the door quickly. Bake for 45 to 60 minutes, and if using a stone or tiles, transfer the loaves directly onto them for the last 10 minutes. Allow the bread to bake until the crust is hard and dark, almost to the point of becoming black on the edges. The top and sides should be hard when pressed, and the loaves should emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTE Corn flour is available in some specialty and natural foods stores. You can substitute fine or medium-grind cornmeal by grinding it into a fine powder, ¼ cup at a time, in a blender or food processor.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and pulse until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

BOIL While waiting for the sponge to rise, bring the ¾ cup water to a rapid boil. Slowly add the cornstarch solution, stirring constantly. Bring to a second boil, remove from the heat, and set aside to cool.

DOUGH When the sponge has risen, add the cornstarch solution, the corn flour, 2 cups of the bread flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More bread flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary. This dough should be softer than usual. Process for 1 to 2 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Boil

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and let rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

BOIL Bring the water to a boil. Slowly add the cornstarch solution, stirring constantly. Bring to a second boil, remove from the heat, and set aside to cool.

DOUGH When the sponge has risen, add the cooled cornstarch solution, the corn flour, 3 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Pulse until the dry ingredients are incorporated. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Swap the beater for the dough hook. Run at first speed for 5 to 8 minutes. You can add more flour ¼ cup at a time, but this dough should be wet. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape the dough into 3 rounds.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Potato Bread

Long before the invention of modern yeast, potatoes and the starchy water in which they were boiled were used to leaven bread. Today we use potatoes and their boiling water for the flavor and tenderness they impart to the finished bread. Potato breads keep exceptionally well in a bread box or the refrigerator and can also be frozen. Friends in the Midwest still compete at fairs and food shows, justifiably proud of their potato breads, some of which come from family recipes handed down through the generations. My father often spoke about potato breads that were baked in Europe when he was a young man. Although we now have potato flour, potato starch, and instant potato flakes available for baking, I like this recipe using fresh mashed potatoes and the water in which they cooked. You can use instant mashed potatoes, but you won’t get the benefits of the potato water.

Bring the 2½ cups water to a boil. Wash and thoroughly scrub the potato, then quarter and cook in the boiling water until soft (approximately 10 minutes). Drain, reserving 2 cups of the potato water. Let cool, then peel and mash. Extra potato water can be refrigerated and used in any yeast recipe for added nutritive value and tenderizing power.

DOUGH In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Stir together the cooled mashed potato and butter and add to the yeast along with the 2 cups reserved potato water. Add the sugar, milk powder, 5 cups of the flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Potato dough will remain a little sticky.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead, adding more flour if necessary, until the dough feels smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes).

RISING Transfer the dough to a clean, oiled mixing bowl and turn to coat. Cover and set aside until the dough doubles in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Punch down, cut in half, shape into 2 balls, and allow to rest, covered, for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans, cover, and set aside in a warm, draft-free place to proof, covered, until the loaves rise above the tops of the pans. Dust the loaves with flour and cut a deep slash down the length of each.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake until the loaves emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (about 50 minutes). The sides should feel firm. If necessary, return the bread to the oven for an additional 5 to 10 minutes. For the last 5 to 10 minutes of baking, remove from the pans and place on an oven stone or tiles if you have them. Remove from the pans and let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

Variation

Shape into 2 round loaves or 1 large one, then proof, covered, on a cornmeal-dusted baking sheet, until doubled in size. Dust with flour and slash the tops in a tic-tac-toe pattern. The large loaf will require extra baking time.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Prepare the potato as above. In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the mashed potato, butter, 2 cups reserved potato water, sugar, milk powder, 3 cups of the flour, and the salt. Process until smooth. Add 2 more cups of flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough begins to pull away from the sides of the bowl. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Pulse or process for 1 to 2 minutes. If the machine begins to strain, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. If necessary, finish kneading by hand until the dough is elastic.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead into a ball. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Prepare the potatoes as above, using 3½ cups water and reserving 3 cups.

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Stir in the cooked mashed potato and the 3 cups reserved potato water. Add the sugar, butter, milk powder, 7½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough remains too soft. Potato dough will remain a little sticky.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes), adding more flour if necessary. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to further develop the gluten. If the motor strains and threatens to stop, use first speed. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Potato Rye Bread with Onion and Caraway

My father’s recipe for sourdough potato rye bread is adapted here for quick preparation, richer flavor, and a softer crust. These breads were often proofed in floured and cloth-lined baskets and tipped upside down onto peels so that they baked with interesting designs on the crust. This bread is an excellent accompaniment for a cheese platter, roasted garlic, or hors d’oeuvres. Try it for open-faced sandwiches with cured meats and roasted bell peppers.

In a small skillet over medium-low heat, sauté the onion, caraway seeds, and the pinch of salt in the oil just long enough to soften the onion. Set aside.

DOUGH In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the mashed potato, sugar, shortening, milk powder, flours, and the 1½ teaspoons salt. Stir with a wooden spoon until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead. If the dough is moist and sticky, add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time. Knead until elastic (5 to 8 minutes). The dough will be stickier than usual.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Punch down, shape into 1 or 2 balls, and allow to rest, covered, for 15 minutes. Knead in the sautéed onion mixture.

SHAPING Shape into 1 or 2 round loaves. Place on a baking sheet dusted with rye flour or cornmeal, then cover and set aside in a warm, draft-free area to proof until doubled in size. Dust the tops with additional all-purpose flour and cut decorative slashes.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) for 35 to 45 minutes. The bread is done when tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow thump. If 1 large loaf is made, allow for additional baking time; check every 10 to 15 minutes. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 or 2 loaves.

NOTE Scrub the potato. Cook, quartered, in 2½ cups boiling water until soft (about 10 minutes). Let cool, then peel and mash. Store extra potato water in the refrigerator for use in any bread recipe. Instant mashed potatoes can be used, but you lose the added benefit of the potato water.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 1 cup warm water use:

Prepare the sautéed onions as above. In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, mashed potato, sugar, shortening, milk powder, and the 2 cups rye flour, 1 cup at a time. Mix until the flour is incorporated. Blend in the all-purpose flour and salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft, but keep in mind that this dough will be on the soft side. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix, since the dough will get too hot. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 or 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Prepare the onions as above. In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the mashed potato, sugar, shortening, milk powder, flours, and salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (5 to 8 minutes). Add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, but bear in mind that rye doughs are normally soft and somewhat sticky.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 1, 2, or 3 rounds.

YIELD Makes 1 to 3 loaves.

Sweet Rye Bread with Potato

German bakers whom I knew made this version of rye bread. The potatoes keep the bread moist and give it a long shelf life. We made this in the bakery with stubby rounded ends to distinguish it from our sour rye bread, which had pointed ends. Many people like the sweet flavor that the molasses imparts to this bread.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the potatoes, potato water, molasses, rye flour, 2¼ cups of the first clear flour, salt, and caraway seeds. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more first clear flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, but bear in mind that doughs with rye flour or potatoes will remain a little sticky.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead until the dough feels smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes), adding more first clear flour if necessary.

RISING Transfer the dough to a clean, oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and set aside until the dough doubles in volume (about 45 minutes). Punch down, cut in half, shape into rounds, and allow to rest, covered, for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape the dough into 2 free-standing pan loaves or 1 large free-standing pan loaf (see this page). Place on a cornmeal-dusted baking pan, then cover and set aside in a warm, draft-free place to proof until the loaves double in size. Cut each loaf with 3 horizontal slashes. Brush with water or the cornstarch solution, or dust the tops with flour.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake until the loaf emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). The large loaf will require extra baking time (about 50 to 60 minutes altogether). The sides should feel firm. When using tiles or an oven stone, finish baking on them for the last 5 to 10 minutes. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 or 2 loaves.

NOTES Wash and thoroughly scrub 2 or 3 medium to large potatoes. Quarter and cook in boiling water to cover until soft (approximately 10 minutes). Drain, reserving 1 cup of the potato water. Peel the potatoes, mash, and set aside 2 cups mashed potatoes to cool. Any extra potato water can be refrigerated and used in any yeast recipe for extra nutritive value and tenderizing power. You can use instant mashed potatoes, but you lose the benefits of the potato water. In place of the first clear flour, you can substitute 1 cup cake flour and 1¼ to 2¼ cups all-purpose flour.

Variation

Shape into 2 round loaves or 1 large one. Proof, covered, on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal or rye flour until doubled in size. Dust the tops with rye flour and slash several times. Bake as above.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the dough, instead of 1 cup potato water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the mashed potatoes, chilled potato water, molasses, rye flour, 2¼ cups of the first clear flour (add the flours 1 cup at a time), salt, and caraway seeds. Pulse until the dough begins to pull away from the sides of the bowl. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary, but bear in mind that doughs with rye flour or potatoes will remain a little sticky. Pulse or process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine begins to strain, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Turn out onto a floured surface and knead into a ball. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 or 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the mashed potatoes, potato water, molasses, rye flour, 3½ cups of the first clear flour, salt, and caraway seeds. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more first clear flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough remains too soft, but bear in mind that doughs with rye flour or potatoes will remain a little sticky.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough feels smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes), adding more first clear flour if necessary. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to further develop the gluten. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

NOTES Wash and thoroughly scrub 3 to 4 medium to large potatoes. Quarter and cook in boiling water to cover until soft (approximately 10 minutes). Drain, reserving 1½ cups of the potato water. Peel the potatoes, mash, and set aside 3 cups mashed potatoes to cool. Any extra potato water can be refrigerated and used in any yeast recipe for extra nutritive value and tenderizing power. You can use instant mashed potatoes, but you lose the benefits of the potato water. In place of first clear flour, you can substitute 1½ cups cake flour and 2 to 3¼ cups all-purpose flour, but it does not work as well.

Potatonik

In the late 1950s, we called these yeast-baked Jewish potato puddings “Spudniks,” a takeoff on Sputnik, the first Russian space satellite. We baked these zesty onion loaves laced with black pepper every week from Thursday through Sunday. It became a tradition that the first loaves out of the oven always had to be tested by the entire baking and sales staff. Often, one had to taste two or three slices before pronouncing them up to standard. One Thursday I observed that an usually timid middle-aged salesclerk appeared to be in distress. When I asked if she was feeling well, her response was, “I think there’s something wrong with the Potatonik today,” while indicating with an unmistakable gesture that a fire was being stoked up inside her chest. A young part-timer who was standing nearby quickly turned away, doubled over with suppressed laughter. Finally, when she could no longer contain herself, the youngster turned and blurted out to the older woman, “Of course you don’t feel well. If I ate two whole Potatonik, I wouldn’t feel well either.”

Potatonik can be used in place of potatoes at any meal. A side dish of applesauce makes an appealing accompaniment. Serve Potatonik warm. It can be refrigerated for several days and reheated before serving. It can also be frozen.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and set aside until it puffs up (20 to 25 minutes).

DOUGH Preheat the oven to 360°F. Stir down the sponge. Scrub the potatoes, then grind or grate them with the skins on. Add the ground potatoes and onions to the sponge and stir until blended. Add the stale roll, flour, salt, baking powder, and pepper to taste; mix until incorporated. Add the oil and eggs and mix well. Turn out into 3 well-greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. The dough for each loaf should weigh about 15 ounces. Leave room for expansion—the Potatonik will rise in the oven.

BAKING Bake with steam (see this page) until the crust is brown and feels firm when gently pressed in the center with your fingertips (about 1 hour). Let cool in the pans on wire rack for 5 minutes, covered with a cloth, to allow the loaves to steam. Invert and tap out onto the racks. Serve warm. Potatonik can be refrigerated for several days or frozen for 1 to 2 weeks. Reheat at 325°F until warm. When reheating, I like to bake it for 25 to 35 minutes to develop a hard crust.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In a medium bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and set aside until it puffs up (20 to 25 minutes).

Meanwhile, scrub the potatoes, then process the potatoes, onion, and stale roll into a coarse chop; do not purée. Transfer to a large bowl.

DOUGH Preheat the oven to 360°F. Stir the sponge into the potato mixture. Add the flour, salt, baking powder, and pepper and pulse only until the dry ingredients are incorporated. Add the oil and eggs and mix well. Turn out into 3 well-greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. The dough for each loaf should weigh about 15 ounces. Leave room for expansion—the Potatonik will rise in the oven. Proceed as in Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER

For 3 loaves, you can use the quantities shown in the hand-mixed recipe.
Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and set aside until it puffs up (20 to 25 minutes).

DOUGH Preheat the oven to 360°F. Stir down the sponge. Scrub the potatoes, then grate them with the skins on. Mix in the grated potatoes, onions, and stale rolls and stir until blended. Add the flour, salt, baking powder, pepper to taste, oil, egg, and water. Pulse with the on/off switch until incorporated, then mix thoroughly. Turn out into 6 well-greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Leave room for expansion—the Potatonik will rise in the oven. Proceed as in Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 6 loaves.

CHAPTER FIVE
Breads of All Nations

Our daily bread, as is our country’s heritage, is rooted in the culture of our immigrant ancestors. Some recipes have remained intact for hundreds of years. Others are derivations that have evolved as bakers strive for perfection. Many of the new breads are in fact old breads rediscovered, or new combinations of ingredients that have been forgotten in the passage of time. The breads that grace our table are from an amalgam of ethnic recipes gathered the world over. Following are the breads of America—the breads of all nations.

Bavarian Farmer Bread

This is a light pumpernickel bread traditionally formed in a round reed basket, which gives it a beehive appearance. You can use any reed or straw basket. Heavy reed baskets need only be dusted with flour. Straw baskets should be lined with thin cloth loosely fastened to the interior with a few sewn stitches. The flour-dusted design makes for an unusually appealing country bread. This bread can also be made as a free-standing loaf or in any round form. Dust with flour and score before baking.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the molasses, rye flour, pumpernickel flour, 3 cups of first clear flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding small amounts of first clear flour as necessary. Knead until smooth and elastic (5 to 8 minutes).

RISING Place the dough in a clean, oiled bowl and turn several times to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). Punch down and let stand, covered, until puffy (about 15 minutes).

SHAPING Shape into 1 or 2 round loaves, depending upon the basket size. Place in a basket, top down and well dusted with rye flour. Cover with a cloth and proof in a warm, draft-free place until doubled in size. Carefully tip the dough out upside down onto a cornmeal-dusted baking sheet or peel so that the textured design comes out on top.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaf emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (about 45 minutes). If 1 large loaf is made, allow for additional baking time (bake for an additional 15 minutes and check, then continue baking as necessary). Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 small loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the previous recipe, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, molasses, rye flour, pumpernickel flour, 1 cup of the first clear flour, and the salt, and mix until all of the ingredients are incorporated. Blend in 2 more cups of the first clear flour, 1 cup at a time, until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not let the dough overheat. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 small loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the molasses, rye flour, pumpernickel flour, 4½ cups of the first clear flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Run at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 1, 2, or 3 rounds.

YIELD Makes 1 large, 2 medium, or 3 small loaves.

Bran Bread

The addition of bran to whole wheat bread makes for a more healthful and tasty loaf. Use this bread anywhere that whole wheat or white flour is used. Substituting shortening or margarine (or half and half) for butter will give you a nondairy loaf.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the butter, honey, bran, whole wheat flour, 2 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt; mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface. Knead, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Knead until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer to a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Punch down the dough and cut in half. Shape into rounds, cover, and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Form into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Proof, covered, in a warm, draft-free area until the loaves form nicely rounded tops and rise above the tops of the pans. Make 1 lengthwise slash down the center of each loaf with a sharp blade. Brush the tops with melted butter or water.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the bread is browned and emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). The loaves can be removed from the pans for the last 5 minutes of baking to improve the crust. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, butter, honey, bran, whole wheat flour, and salt. Process until smooth. Add 2 cups of the all-purpose flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough comes together and tries to ride up on top of the blade. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not overheat. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out into a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn to coat. Cover and set aside until the dough doubles in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the butter, honey, bran, whole wheat flour, 3 cups of the all-purpose flour, and salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to develop the gluten.

Remove the hook, add oil to the bowl, and turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Buttermilk Bread

Buttermilk Bread has an old-fashioned farm flavor and just enough texture to give it a homemade taste. Make this bread with butter and honey, cut thick slices, and serve it warm for breakfast. It is also excellent for sandwiches or topped with apple butter.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the buttermilk, honey, butter, 5 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer to a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Punch down the dough and cut in half. Shape into rounds, cover, and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Proof, covered, in a warm, draft-free area until the loaves form nicely rounded tops and rise above the tops of the pans. Place the breads on a baking sheet. Punch 3 holes in the crust of each with an ice pick or skewer. Brush the tops with melted butter or water.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaves are browned and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). The loaves can be removed from the pans for the last 5 minutes of baking to improve the crust. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Make sure that the buttermilk is cold or iced.

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the cold buttermilk, honey, butter, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until smooth. Add 3 cups more flour, 1 cup at a time, and pulse until the dough comes together. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 2 minutes. Do not allow the dough to overheat. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out into a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until the dough doubles in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the buttermilk, honey, butter, 7½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to develop the gluten.

Remove the hook, add oil to the bowl, and turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Carrot Bread

A slightly sweet flavor and attractive orange flecks from the carrots make this a colorful and festive bread. It is also rich in vitamins and exceptionally nutritious. It goes well with cheese dishes and salads and can replace whole wheat or white bread for party sandwiches. Grinding and shredding the carrots each offers a different bite to the bread; try both ways if you wish.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge and add the sugar, butter, carrots, milk powder, wheat flour, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, and salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Knead until the dough is soft and elastic (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Cut the dough into thirds, shape into rounds, and let rest, covered, for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 3 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 3 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Cover with a flour-dusted cloth and let rise until the tops are 1 inch above the tops of the pans (45 to 60 minutes). When the bread is fully proofed, cut 3 diagonal slashes down the length of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until golden brown (25 to 35 minutes). Remove from the pans for the last 5 minutes and bake on an oven stone or tiles if you have them. The bread is done when it emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips and the sides feel hard and crisp.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and process while slowly pouring the ice water into the processor. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse to punch down the sponge, then add the sugar, butter, carrots, milk powder, whole wheat flour, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, and salt. Pulse until the dough comes together and tries to ride up on top of the blade. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 1 minute. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand will be necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out into a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn to coat. Cover and let rise until doubled in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in size (35 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater. Add the sugar, butter, carrots, milk powder, whole wheat flour, 1½ cups of the all-purpose flour, and salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Run the machine at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to a clean, oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in size (35 to 45 minutes). Turn out onto a floured surface, cut into 4 pieces, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow the dough to rest for 15 minutes. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 4 loaves.

YIELD Makes 4 loaves.

Challah

Challah, or egg bread, is a sweet, egg-rich, festive-looking bread with an elegant mahogany hue. This bread was originally baked by Jewish families to grace the Sabbath or holiday table. Years ago, bakery customers who were unfamiliar with the name would ask for “the Friday bread.”

Challah can be made up in different shapes, ranging from a sectioned pan loaf to fancy and intricate braids (see “Braiding Challah,” below). On certain holidays it is made into a round, turban-shaped bread. Today its use is becoming universal. It is found in ethnic bakeries and food markets of all kinds. Challah is often used as a centerpiece at Sunday dinner and appears on many Easter tables. When the bread is baked in braided form, it is customary to break off small knobs of it rather than cutting or slicing it. One literally breaks bread with guests and family. Leftover challah makes the best French toast I’ve ever eaten.

Challah dough is also used as rich egg roll dough and is made into many varieties of party or dinner rolls (see this page). In hot weather it’s advisable to use cold ingredients to keep the dough temperature from becoming too high.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the egg, egg yolks, oil, sugar, 4 cups of the flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky or very soft. The dough should be firm. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic and the gluten is well developed (10 to 15 minutes). When you push down, the dough should feel firm and push back.

RISING Transfer to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, and let rise, covered, until tripled in volume (30 to 40 minutes). When fully risen, an indentation made with a finger pushed down into the center of the dough should remain and not recede. This is a fully aged, or ready, dough. Punch down the dough, cut in half, cover, and allow to rise for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Punch down again and, on a very lightly floured work surface, use your palms to roll the pieces into 2 ropes, at least 12 inches long. Cut each into 6 equal pieces and braid (see “Six-Strand Braid,” this page) or make up into a 6-section pan challah, (see “Section Challah,” this page). Brush with the egg wash, using care to cover completely, but do not let excess egg drip into the crevices. Sprinkle with poppy seeds or sesame seeds if desired.

If you are making the braided challah, transfer the challah to a cornmeal-dusted baking pan. For section challah, place the loaves in 2 well-greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Place in a warm, draft-free area, preferably enclosed, and allow to rise until doubled in size.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 350°F. Bake on the middle shelf of the oven until the loaves have a rich mahogany color and emit a hollow sound when tapped lightly on the bottom with your fingertips (35 minutes). If the top begins to brown excessively and the bottom is raw, cover the bread with a sheet of parchment paper or aluminum foil that has been creased down the center to form a tent. If there is a white line visible between the braids, continue baking until it disappears. To test for doneness, press lightly between the braids on the highest part of the bread; it should be firm. If you feel the creases give when lightly pressed, continue baking until they firm up. Let cool on a wire rack. Challah keeps very well for several days in a plastic bag in a bread box. It can be frozen; defrost slowly, preferably wrapped, overnight in the refrigerator.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTE You can substitute all-purpose flour for bread flour, but the challah will not be as light or tender.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, egg, egg yolks, oil, sugar, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt; pulse to combine. Add 2 more cups of flour 1 cup at a time. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary. The dough should be firm. Pulse until the dough forms up into a ball, then continue pulsing for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. If using a dough thermometer, keep the dough at 78°F to 82°F. Do not overmix. If necessary, knead by hand until the dough is smooth and elastic and the gluten is well developed. When you push down, the dough should be firm and push back. Knead together and shape into a ball. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, eggs, egg yolks, oil, sugar, 6 cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. This bread requires a firmer dough than normal.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed for 15 minutes, or until the dough feels firm and pushes back. Do not leave the mixer unattended. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Braiding Challah

Many different braids and shapes can be used for making challah. In my bakery we made a 6-strand braided challah (see this page) and I recommend this shape for home bakers. It is the result of many years of trial and error when teaching new bakers. It takes some practice, but it is worth the effort.

Top Challah

The Top Challah uses two 3-strand braids, one placed on top of the other, and this is a festive, professional-looking bread. We baked very large top challahs, often 6 feet in length, in the shop for large centerpieces. These were baked for weddings, confirmations, banquets, etc.

Prepare the challah dough (see previous recipe). Divide the dough into 4 pieces. (I suggest also using 4 pieces for the stand mixer recipe; you will have a larger, more beautiful table bread.)

Take 1 piece and cut it into thirds. When braided, these 3 small pieces will form the top and the large pieces will be the base. While working, keep the dough covered with a cloth. Begin with the large pieces. Use little or no flour to make the braids. If the dough sticks, a very light dusting will suffice. On the work surface, use your palms to roll the pieces out into ropes about 12 inches long, thick in the center and with tapered ends. If a strip resists stretching, set it aside to rest and go on to the next. Continue rolling them in turn until all have achieved the desired length. Set aside, cover, and allow to rest for a few minutes.

Do the same with the smaller pieces, rolling them out into thinner 12-inch ropes.

Make two 3-strand braids. Start with the larger pieces and begin braiding from the center down to the end. Bring the left strand over the center, then the right strand over the center. Repeat, left over right, right over left, until you reach the end. Flip the braid over on its opposite side and turn top to bottom. Complete the braid and pinch the ends tightly together to close. Braid the smaller strands in the same manner.

With your fingertips, press out a straight line of indentations down the center not quite to the ends. Strike the indentations with the side of your hand to form one continuous line. A thin dowel or even a pencil can be used to widen the crease. Dip your fingers in water and lightly moisten the entire length of the crease. Set the smaller braid on top of the moistened crease and press down gently, pinching all the ends together tightly. For the Top Challah it would be helpful for the home baker to use 4 to 6 wooden skewers to secure the top to the bottom section. They can be removed after baking. Brush with egg wash. Allow to proof, covered, until not quite doubled in size and the braid feels firm when lightly touched on the sides. Brush with egg wash a second time for high gloss.

The bread will spring up in the oven. Bake for 45 to 60 minutes. If the top begins to brown before the challah is fully cooked, cover with a tent of parchment paper so that the top does not burn while the center is allowed to bake.

Section Challah (Pan Loaf)

One recipe will yield 2 loaves (3 in the stand mixer recipe). Divide each round into 6 equal pieces and roll into balls. With your palms, gently roll the balls into small oblongs not more than the width of your hand. Line up 6 of these sections in a well-greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pan. Brush carefully with egg wash. In my bakery we used to line up the oblongs on the benchtop in rows of 6, brush with egg wash, then with both hands pick up all 6 pieces at once and place them in the pan.

Variation

Place a 3-strand braided challah (see “Top Challah,” this page) in a well-greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pan. When baked, it will form a rectangular loaf with a braided top.

Turban (Round Challah)

These breads are generally baked for the Jewish High Holidays of Rosh Hashanah (the Jewish New Year) and Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement). Made from a long single strand shaped into a coil, they rise into a turban-shaped bread when baked.

Prepare one recipe and divide it in half. Roll each piece into a fat rope and allow to rest for several minutes. Leaving one end thick, roll once more with your palms, lengthening the strand and tapering the other end to a point. You should end up with two 18- to 24-inch lengths, thick on one end and tapered to a point on the other end. Alternate between the two strands to allow them to rest for several minutes.

Take the lengthened strand and, keeping the wide end on the work surface, with one hand lift the tapered end and wind the entire length around the wide center to form a coil. Slip the tip under the coil and press down hard so that it will not open upon rising. Brush with egg wash, place on cornmeal-dusted pans, proof, covered, until doubled in volume, and brush with egg wash a second time before baking. Seeds for topping are optional.

Six-Strand Braid

This is the standard challah braid that we used in my bakery. It is not difficult, but it requires practice. One cannot visualize this method from reading or studying the diagram. You must have the strips of dough in front of you and follow the directions, making up the braid one step at a time. If an error is made, simply open up the braid and start over.

Prepare one recipe and divide it in half. Cut each half into 6 equal pieces. Roll each piece into a strand about 12 inches long, thick in the center and tapered to a point on each end. Line up 6 strands and pinch the ends together.

Bring strand #6 from the right end over strand #1 and up to the left. Bring strand #1 from the left up to the top right.

You now have a four-legged creature with the arms crossed over each other. Keeping the legs spread apart in pairs, the left arm (as you face it) comes down into the center between the legs.

Bring the outer right leg over and up to form a new top left arm. The top right arm comes down between the legs.

Repeat the pattern. The left outer leg comes up to form the new right arm, and the left arm comes down to the center. The right leg comes up to form the new left arm, and the right arm comes down to the center.

Continue by alternating, left leg up to become right arm, left arm down to the center. Right leg up to become left arm, right arm down to the center, and so on. Finish by pinching the ends tightly closed.

Always keep hold of the last strand you moved so that you remember your location in the pattern. When moving strands, grasp the arms by the ends where hands would be. Grasp the legs where feet would be. Keep the legs spread in pairs so that the arms can easily be brought down to the center. If you become momentarily disoriented when braiding, remember that arms come down, legs come up. If you make an error and become entirely confused, stop, open the braid, and begin again. When done, if there is any doubt turn the bread upside down. The design should be perfectly symmetrical. If not, undo it and begin again.

Six-Strand Braid

Crown Pull-Aparts

This new challah shape is quick and easy to make and even easier to eat. You’ll want to make enough for seconds, because everyone will want more. You may make this in either an 8- or 9-inch cake pan. If you use an 8-inch pan, the bread will be taller; if you use a 9-inch pan, it will be bigger around.

For each pull-apart, divide a section of dough, the equivalent of one challah bread, into 6 equal pieces and roll into balls. I like to weigh them so that they are equal in size. Grease an 8- or 9-inch cake pan, and arrange 5 of the balls, evenly spaced, around the edge of the pan. Place the last ball of dough in the center. Set aside, covered, and allow to rise until the balls fill the pan, touching each other. When fully risen, brush with egg wash. Allow the egg wash to dry, then brush with egg wash a second time for a lacquered shine. When dry, bake in a 375°F oven for about 35 minutes, or until golden brown. Set aside to cool. Place on a serving dish and let the gang pull it all apart. This will keep for up to 3 days in a plastic bag in a bread box or in the refrigerator, or it may be frozen for several weeks.

Sesame Whole Wheat Challah

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the egg, egg yolks, oil, honey, sugar, whole wheat flour, 2½ cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky or very soft. The dough should be firm. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic and the gluten is well developed (10 to 15 minutes). When you push down, the dough should feel firm and push back.

RISING Transfer to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, and let rise, covered, until tripled in volume. When fully risen, an indentation made with a finger pushed down into the center of the dough should remain and not recede (35 to 40 minutes). This is a fully aged, or ready, dough. Punch down the dough, cut in half, cover, and allow to rise for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Punch down again and, on a very lightly floured work surface, use your palms to roll the pieces into 2 long ropes. Cut each into 6 equal pieces and braid or make up into a six-section pan loaf (see “Section Challah,” this page). Brush with the egg wash, using care to cover completely, but do not let excess egg drip into the crevices. Allow the egg wash to air-dry, then brush with egg wash a second time. Sprinkle with poppy seeds or sesame seeds.

If you are making the braided challah, transfer the bread to a cornmeal-dusted baking pan. For section challah, place the loaves in 2 well-greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Place in a warm, draft-free area, preferably enclosed, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in size.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 350°F. Bake on the middle shelf of the oven until the loaves have a rich mahogany color and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 minutes). If the top begins to brown excessively and the bottom is raw, cover the bread with a sheet of parchment paper or aluminum foil creased down the center to form a tent. If there is a white line visible between the braids, continue baking until it disappears. To test for doneness, press lightly between the braids on the highest part of the bread; it should be firm. If you feel the creases give when lightly pressed, continue baking until they firm up. Let cool on a wire rack. Challah keeps very well for several days in a bread box. It can be frozen; defrost slowly, preferably wrapped, overnight in the refrigerator.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTE You can substitute all-purpose flour for bread flour, but the challah will not be as light or tender.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, egg, egg yolks, oil, honey, sugar, whole wheat flour, ½ cup of the bread flour, and the salt; pulse to combine. Add 2 more cups of the bread flour 1 cup at a time. More bread flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary. The dough should be firm. Pulse until the dough forms up into a mass, then continue pulsing for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. If using a dough thermometer, keep the dough at 78°F to 82°F. Do not overmix. If necessary, knead by hand until the dough is smooth and elastic and the gluten is well developed. When you push down, the dough should be firm and push back. Knead together and shape into a ball. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the eggs, egg yolks, oil, honey, sugar, whole wheat flour, 3¾ cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour if necessary. This bread requires a firmer dough than normal.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed for 10 to 15 minutes, until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl. Do not leave the mixer unattended. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

NOTES For ½ egg, lightly beat 1 egg, then spill off approximately half (may be kept for egg wash; add to the surplus egg whites). You can substitute all-purpose flour for bread flour, but the challah will not be as light or tender.

Cheese Bread

This rich, nutritious bread is popular with many farm families. Try making it with assorted hard cheeses to vary the flavor.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge and add the sugar, butter, Cheddar cheese, milk powder, 3 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Knead until the dough feels soft and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until puffy (15 to 20 minutes). Cut the dough half, shape into rounds, cover, and let rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape the rounds into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place into 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans, seam down. Cover with a flour-dusted cloth and proof in a warm, draft-free area until doubled in size, or the loaves rise 1 inch above the tops of the pans (45 to 60 minutes). Brush the tops with oil or melted butter and sprinkle with the Parmesan cheese. Punch 3 holes in the top of each loaf with an ice pick or a skewer.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the bread is golden brown and emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (25 to 35 minutes).

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

Variations

Cheese Swirl

Instead of kneading the cheese into the dough, when shaping, flatten out the dough, sprinkle with the Cheddar (or other) cheese, and form up jelly-roll style. Continue as with Proofing and Baking, above. The cheese will appear as a swirl in the finished bread. This is my favorite; it has more cheese flavor and added eye appeal.

Cheese Bread with Chives and Stuffed Olives

To the dough recipe above add:

Add the chives with the dry ingredients. Before shaping the loaves, flatten out the dough, sprinkle with the sliced stuffed olives, and form up jelly-roll style. Continue as with Proofing and Baking, above. For an Italian variation, try strong pitted black olives and Gorgonzola cheese. The better olives will have to be pitted by hand, but it is worth the extra work.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and process while slowly pouring the ice water into the processor. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse to punch down the sponge, then add the sugar, butter, Cheddar cheese, milk powder, 3 cups of the flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 1 minute. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until puffy (15 to 20 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the sugar, butter, Cheddar cheese, milk powder, 4½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Run the machine at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until puffy (15 to 20 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Cinnamon Raisin Bread

This all-time breakfast favorite is good plain or toasted with butter or jam. Kids love it at snack time. It has much less fat and fewer calories than coffee cake or cookies.

Filling

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the sugar, butter, milk powder, 5 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer to a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Punch down the dough and cut in half. Cover and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING AND FILLING Roll the dough out into a rectangle 12 to 14 inches long and 6 inches wide. Brush with the melted butter, then sprinkle with the raisins.

Sprinkle lightly with the brown sugar. Combine the granulated sugar and cinnamon (use the larger amounts if rolling the baked loaves in additional cinnamon sugar; see below) and sprinkle 2 tablespoons of the cinnamon sugar over the surface. Roll up jelly-roll style and form into pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Proof, covered, in a warm, draft-free area until the loaves rise above the tops of the pans. Stipple 3 holes down the center of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaves are browned and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). Let cool on a wire rack. If desired, while the loaves are still warm, spread the remaining cinnamon sugar in a pan, brush the breads all over with melted butter or oil, and roll them in the cinnamon sugar.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

Variation

Whole Wheat Cinnamon Raisin Bread

Substitute 2 cups whole wheat flour for 2 cups of the all-purpose flour (3 for 3 for the stand mixer).

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, sugar, butter, milk powder, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until smooth. Add 3 more cups flour (1 cup at a time) and pulse until the dough comes together and tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not allow the dough to overheat. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to a clean, oiled bowl and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until the dough doubles in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Filling and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Filling

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the sugar, butter, milk powder, 7½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to develop the gluten.

Add the oil to the bowl and turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Filling and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Cottage Cheese and Chive Bread

I first had this tasty bread at a luncheon at the Culinary Institute of America. It goes well with salads, cold dishes, vegetarian meals, and dairy dishes. Made up into little rolls, it works with appetizers, buffets, and assorted spreads. Here is my version.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge and add the sugar, butter, cottage cheese, bread flour, 2 cups of the all-purpose flour, the chives, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Knead until the dough feels soft and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes). Punch down and allow to rise until doubled once more. Cut the dough in half, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow to rest for 5 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 baguette-shaped loaves (see this page). Place the loaves on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal. Cover with a flour-dusted cloth and allow to rise 45 to 60 minutes, until doubled in size. When the bread is fully proofed, cut 3 diagonal slashes down the length of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 450°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until golden brown (25 to 35 minutes). For the last 5 minutes of baking, remove from the pans and place on an oven stone or tiles if you have them. The bread is done when it emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips and the sides feel hard and crisp.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

Variation

Sweet Dairy Rolls

When shaping, roll out into 2 ropes and cut each into 8 equal pieces. Roll into balls and either leave them round or taper the ends to points. Place on greased baking sheets, leaving room between each roll for expansion. Proof, covered, until doubled in size, slash once down the length of each, and bake as above until browned and crisp (15 to 20 minutes).

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the sponge, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and process until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse to punch down the sponge, then add the sugar, butter, cottage cheese, bread flour, 2 cups of the all-purpose flour (1 cup at a time), the chives, and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 1 minute. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes). Punch down and allow to rise until doubled once more (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the sugar, butter, cottage cheese, bread flour, 3 cups of the all-purpose flour (1 cup at a time), the chives, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes). Punch down and allow to rise once again until doubled. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Cracked Wheat Bread

This whole grain bread has a light texture and flavor. The whole wheat provides nutritional value, while the white flour allows the dough to rise better and produce a softer bread. Many people prefer whole wheat bread with cracked wheat because the whole grain adds crunch and distinction to the bite. This bread is good for sandwiches and toasts well.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flours and mix until smooth. Cover set aside in a warm place until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH In another large bowl, combine the sugar, milk powder, whole wheat flour, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Cut in the butter. Add the cooked wheat berries and the sponge. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels soft and silky (8 to 10 minutes). It should push back when pressed and your hand should come away clean. Cut the dough in half, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow to rest, covered, for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Proof, covered, until the tops are nicely rounded tops and the loaves rise above the tops of the pans. Brush the loaves with water and slash once lengthwise down the center of each loaf with a sharp knife or razor blade.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) on the middle shelf of the oven until the loaves have a brown color and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTE Wheat berries are generally available in natural foods stores. Coarsely grind them in small batches in a blender or grinder. The flavor derived from using freshly ground wheat berries is worth the extra work. Otherwise, use cracked wheat cereal, also available at natural foods stores. For 2 cups cooked wheat berries or cereal, use ½ cup wheat berries or cracked wheat cereal to 1½ cups water. Let cool before adding to the dough.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and pulse until smooth. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in size (about 30 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge, then add the sugar, milk powder, whole wheat flour, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, salt, butter, and cooked wheat berries. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl and tries to ride up on top of the blade. Process for about 1 minute. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flours and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add 1½ cups of the all-purpose flour, the whole wheat flour, sugar, butter, milk powder, cooked wheat berries, and salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too moist or soft, add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last 5 minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

NOTE See also Note above. To make 3 cups cooked wheat berries or cracked wheat cereal, use 6 tablespoons wheat berries or cereal to 2¼ cups water. Let cool before adding to the dough.

French Bread

Americans have an ongoing love affair with French foods. Among those we encounter most often are the pale, crusty loaves of real French bread. The basic loaf is made using only flour, water, yeast, and salt. It is the procedure that creates the distinctive qualities of this very special bread. Consequently, follow the procedure carefully and your breads will have that authentic French appeal.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge, then add 2 cups of the flour and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead, adding ¼ cup of flour at a time if necessary. This dough is kept on the soft side and is easy to knead. When the dough feels good to you, knead for 15 to 20 minutes more. While kneading, pick up the dough occasionally and bang it down on the work surface; this will help aerate the dough and strengthen the gluten, which is so necessary for this bread. Stretching the dough from time to time will add elasticity. The finished dough will become airy, push back under your hands, and feel very smooth.

RISING Turn out into a clean, oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover with a towel and set aside in a warm, draft-free area until puffed up (about 30 minutes). Punch down the dough and allow to rise a second time until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Cut the dough in half, shape into 2 balls, cover, and let rest for 5 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 thin baguettes (see this page) about 1 inch in diameter. Place on a cornmeal-dusted baking sheet or on greased baguette pans (see this page) if available.

Cover with a damp cloth and allow to rise in a warm, draft-free area for 45 to 60 minutes. Brush the loaves with water and cut 3 or more diagonal slashes with a sharp knife or razor blade. Cut with the knife held at a 20-degree angle, not straight down into the bread. This will cause the bread to break open, or bloom, in the oven, forming crisp, thick edges.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 475°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the bread is brown and very crusty and emits a hollow sound when you tap the bottom with your fingertips (25 to 35 minutes). For the last 10 minutes of baking, remove from the pans and place on an oven stone or tiles if you have them. The crust should feel hard when squeezed gently on the sides. If the bread still appears pale in color, bake an additional 5 to 10 minutes to develop a crustier loaf. Let cool, uncovered, on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 baguettes.

Variations

Whole Wheat French Bread

Use bread flour in the sponge and substitute whole wheat flour, preferably stone-ground, for the all-purpose flour in the dough. If bread flour is not available, use all-purpose flour in its place.

French Bread Rolls

Mix white or whole wheat French bread dough, as above. When ready to shape, roll out into 2 ropes (3 ropes in the stand mixer recipe) and divide each into 9 equal pieces. Let the ropes rest, then form into little baguettes shapes. Place on greased baking sheets, allowing room for the rolls to rise. Proof, covered, slash once down the center of each, and bake with steam as above until crisp on all sides and light brown in color (12 to 18 minutes).

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water to soften. Add the flour and pulse until smooth. Keep the processor’s cover in place and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge, then add 2 cups of the flour (1 cup at a time) and the salt. Pulse until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl and tries to ride up on top of the blade. Add more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Pulse or process for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not overheat. (If you use a dough thermometer, do not exceed 78°F to 84°F.) If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. This dough will be softer than usual. It may be necessary to knead by hand for several minutes to make the dough more elastic and airy. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 baguettes.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and let rise until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes).

DOUGH Punch down the sponge by stirring at first speed, then add 3 cups of the flour and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Continue mixing at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed for 12 to 15 minutes, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, but do keep this dough a little soft. You can run the mixer at second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 or 4 baguettes.

YIELD Makes 3 or 4 baguettes.

Fougasse

This crispy flat bread originated in the south of France. Baked in a traditional oval or triangular shape, these breads are almost all crust and are somewhat similar to focaccia. They can be used with any meal or as snacks. Be sure to bake more than one per person. They have been known to disappear from the table before everyone sits down to the meal. The sponge is best prepared the night before baking, or preferably 24 hours in advance, and left at room temperature.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and allow to stand overnight or for 24 hours at room temperature.

DOUGH Stir down the sponge, then add the water, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add the oil, 3 cups of the flour, and the salt. Using your fingertips, lightly distribute the salt into a depression in the top of the flour. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels soft and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer to a large oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume.

Turn out onto a floured surface and punch down. Cut into 3 equal pieces, shape into rounds, and allow to rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING With a rolling pin or French rolling stick, roll out into ovals 9 to 10 inches long. Let the pieces rest until a bit puffy. Stretch or roll out into a long fan shape (a triangle) about 9 inches wide and 11 inches long. Place on 3 cornmeal-dusted baking sheets, 2 to a pan. Slash the breads with 5 long incisions following the fan shape, leaving a margin of about 1 to 1½ inches from both the top and the bottom. Cover with a flour-dusted cloth and allow to rise until puffy and doubled in size (35 to 40 minutes).

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until golden brown (about 25 minutes). These thin breads bake very quickly and must be watched carefully. The bread is done when it has good color on the top and bottom. Serve warm or within a few hours, since fougasse is mostly crust and dries out quickly.

YIELD Makes 3 fougasse.

Variation

Fougasse with Kosher Imitation Bacon Bits

Add 2 tablespoons bacon bits (3 tablespoons in the stand mixer recipe) to the dough before the final kneading.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE Prepare the sponge as above, but use a small bowl.

DOUGH Stir down the sponge and transfer to the work bowl. Soften the yeast in the warm water and add to the work bowl along with the oil, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse until incorporated. Add 1 more cup of the flour and mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, then pulse or process for 1 to 2 minutes more. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to a large oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 3 fougasse.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. And the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and allow to stand overnight or for 24 hours at room temperature.

DOUGH Stir down the sponge and transfer to the mixing bowl. Soften the yeast in the warm water and add it to the mixing bowl, along with the butter, 4½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix until the dough come away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels soft and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer to a large oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 4 fougasse.

YIELD Makes 4 fougasse.

French Onion Bread

Crisp, thin-crusted, and with a rough country texture, this bread has a savory flavor that enhances soups, salads, and many meat and cheese dishes. The bread is best if the sponge is prepared a day ahead.

Sponge

Onions

Dough

SPONGE In a separate bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm, draft-free spot until bubbly and fermented (a minimum of 4 to 6 hours or, preferably, overnight).

ONIONS Thinly slice the onions, then sauté in the oil over medium-low heat until barely browned. Set aside.

DOUGH In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the water and allow a few minutes to soften. Stir down the sponge and add to the bowl. Add 3½ cups of the flour and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more flour in small amounts if the dough is sticky. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes), then knead in the sautéed onions. If they resist inclusion into the dough, be patient. Continue kneading until incorporated.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until puffy (30 to 40 minutes). Punch down, then let rise a second time until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes).

SHAPING Punch down, then shape into 2 round loaves. Place on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal or flour and proof, covered, until doubled in size (about 45 to 60 minutes). Brush the tops of the loaves with water, then cut 4 slashes in the form of a number sign (#). A sprinkling of chopped onion can be placed in the center, if desired.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 450°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the bread has a rich color and emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (30 to 35 minutes). For the last 5 to 10 minutes of baking, the loaves can be removed from the pans for a crustier bread. Brush with water and let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In a medium bowl, prepare the sponge with ½ cup warm water, as above. Set aside.

DOUGH In the recipe above, instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add the sponge, ice water, 1½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse until incorporated, then blend in 2 more cups flour, 1 cup at a time. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process or pulse for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not overmix or the dough will get too hot. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and mix each half separately, then knead together by hand. You may have to knead by hand for a few minutes to make the dough elastic.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead in the sautéed onions. If they resist inclusion into the dough, be patient. Continue kneading until incorporated.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until puffy (30 to 40 minutes). Punch down, then let rise a second time until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Onions

Dough

SPONGE In a separate bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add 2¼ cups flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and allow to stand until bubbly and fermented (a minimum of 4 to 6 hours or, preferably, overnight).

ONIONS Thinly slice the onions, then sauté in the oil over medium-low heat until barely browned. Set aside.

DOUGH In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Stir down the sponge and add to the mixing bowl. Add 5¼ cups of the flour and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. Add the reserved onions and mix until incorporated. Be patient if they resist inclusion into the dough. Continue kneading until incorporated.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until puffy (30 to 40 minutes). Punch down and let rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Cholesterol-Free Irish Raisin Bread

Although cholesterol-free and low in fat, calories, and sodium, this bread remains sweet and rich tasting. It is comparable to standard Irish raisin bread but with additional flavors all its own.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the honey, oil, milk powder, egg whites, 5 cups of the flour, the salt, coriander, and cardamom. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (about 8 minutes). The finished dough should push back when pressed down. Add the raisins and gently knead them into the dough.

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat on all sides. Cover with plastic wrap or a cloth and set aside until doubled in volume. Due to the reduced salt content, this dough will rise quicker than usual (see Note). Punch down, cut in half, and shape into 2 rounds. Cover and allow to rest for about 10 minutes.

SHAPING Knead each piece lightly, then shape each into a tight ball by pulling the sides underneath and turning the dough as you work. Place on a cornmeal-dusted baking sheet, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in size. Brush with the egg wash and allow to dry, then brush with the egg wash a second time to ensure a high shine when baked.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake for 35 to 45 minutes, until the loaves emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips. (See Baker’s Secret on this page.)

If using an oven stone or tiles, bake the loaves directly on them for the last 5 to 10 minutes for a better crust.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTE When salt is omitted completely, the dough will rise very quickly. Allow it to rise only until it becomes puffy (15 to 20 minutes). Shape and proof, covered, without letting it rest. The bread will proof quicker than usual. Bake immediately.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the above recipe, instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add the honey, oil, milk powder, egg whites, 2 cups of the flour, the salt, coriander, and cardamom. Add the ice water while running the machine. Add 3 more cups flour, 1 cup at a time, and pulse until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Pulse for 45 to 60 seconds. Do not overmix. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Sprinkle the raisins on top and knead them in. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add the honey, oil, milk powder, egg whites, 7½ cups of the flour, the salt, coriander, and cardamom. Add the ice water while pulsing with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the dough. If the motor becomes excessively strained, use first speed.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead in the raisins by hand. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Irish Raisin Bread

This bread seemed to evolve in my bakery, adapting itself to the desire for a more typical type of raisin bread but one that retained some of its ethnic origins. This is a sweet bread that goes well with many foods and is much richer than the baking soda–leavened variety. It is generally baked in a round shape with an egg-wash glaze. This bread, which keeps well and slices easily, goes well at breakfast or teatime. Try it with cheese, as an accompaniment to a salad entrée, or with the main course.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the sugar, butter, milk powder, egg, 5 cups of the flour, the salt, and the cardamom. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead until smooth and elastic (about 8 minutes), adding flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky. The finished dough should push back when pressed down. Add the raisins and gently knead them into the dough.

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover with plastic wrap or a towel and set aside until doubled in volume. Punch down, cut in half, and shape into balls. Cover and let rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Knead each round lightly, then shape each into a tight ball. Place on a cornmeal-dusted baking sheet, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in size. Brush with the egg wash and allow to dry for several minutes, then brush with the egg wash a second time to ensure a high shine when baked.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake until the loaves emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes).

If baking on an oven stone or tiles, bake the loaves directly on them for the last 5 to 10 minutes.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, the butter and eggs can be chilled. Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, sugar, butter, milk powder, egg, 2 cups of the flour, the salt, and the cardamom. Pulse until the ingredients are incorporated. Add 3 more cups flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. Add more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Pulse for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not allow the dough to overheat.

Turn out onto a floured surface, sprinkle the raisins on top and knead them in. Extra kneading may be necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, sugar, butter, milk powder, eggs, 7½ cups of the flour, the salt, and the cardamom. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time as necessary.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten. If the motor becomes excessively strained, use first speed.

Turn out onto a lightly floured surface and knead in the raisins by hand. Cover and proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Italian Bread

On a visit to Rome I once walked into a local bread bakery where I gained admission into the kitchen. Speaking no Italian but using sign language and a few words, I conversed with the bakers, who spoke no English. I was able to establish that I was a baker. We had an extended, though wordless, conversation about their breads and managed to understand one another. We molded up some breads by hand to demonstrate our skill to one another. When I was ready to leave, they insisted that I take with me an assortment of breads and rolls so that I might enjoy the products of their labor.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge and add the sugar, shortening, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels soft and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

It should push back when pressed and your hand should come away clean.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Punch down, cut in half, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow to rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Form into Italian-shaped loaves (see this page) and place the loaves on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal. Brush with water and sprinkle with the sesame seeds. Cover with a damp cloth and allow to rise until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). When the bread has fully proofed, cut 3 diagonal slashes or 1 long slash down the center.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 400°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until golden brown (25 to 30 minutes). For the last 5 minutes of baking, remove from the pans and place on an oven stone or tiles if you have them. The bread is done when it emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips and the sides feel hard and crisp.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE Instead of the 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water and the flour and pulse until smooth. Keep the processor’s cover in place and allow to rise until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse to punch down the sponge, then add the sugar, shortening, 2 cups of the flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough begins to form up into a ball. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 1 minute. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the sugar, shortening, 3 cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last 5 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Focaccia

Focaccia is an Italian flat bread that enjoys wide popularity. It is the forerunner of pizza as we know it and is still enjoyed all over the world. Served plain, slathered with olive oil and coarse salt, or with simple toppings, these breads make marvelous snacks and go well with most meals. Oil, salt, and rosemary are my favorite toppings. Focaccia can be slit open and filled, sandwich-style, and served either warm or cold. Try it with a melted cheese filling. Foccacia can be made in either a round pizza pan or a rectangular sheet pan.

Peel and quarter the potato and place in a small pan with at least 1½ cups water to cover. Bring to a boil and cook until firm but can be pierced with the point of a knife. Set aside to cool, reserving 1 cup of the potato water. Rice the potatoes with a food mill or other grinder.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the reserved potato water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the egg, all-purpose flour, 4 cups of the bread flour, and the salt; mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer the dough to a clean, oiled bowl and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside. Allow to rise until the dough doubles in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Punch down and shape the dough into a loaf. Cover, and let rest for 15 minutes. The dough may be divided in half for 2 smaller breads.

SHAPING Prepare a greased baking sheet. Roll out and stretch the dough, letting it rest when it becomes resistant, then continue until it is large enough to cover the pan. Cover and allow to proof until puffed up. Dimple the tops with your fingertips and brush with water. Sprinkle carefully with additional toppings if desired.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the bread has browned top and bottom (35 to 40 minutes). Let cool on wire racks. May be served either warm or cold. Try cutting a sandwich-size rectangle and toast lightly in a toaster oven before serving.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 small focaccia.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 1 cup warm water use:

Prepare the potato as above. In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the potato water, the egg, all-purpose flour, 1 cup of the bread flour, and the salt. Mix until smooth. Add 3 more cups flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough comes together and tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not allow the dough to overheat. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out into a clean, oiled bowl and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until the dough doubles in volume (about 30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 focaccia.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Peel and quarter the potatoes and place in a small pan with at least 2½ cups of water to cover. Bring to a boil and cook until firm but can be pierced with the point of a knife. Set aside to cool, reserving 2 cups of the potato water. Rice the potatoes in a food mill or other grinder.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the eggs, all-purpose flour, 5½ cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to develop the gluten.

Remove the hook, add oil to the bowl, and turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Punch down the dough, then allow to rise, covered, until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 focaccia.

YIELD Makes 3 (10 by 14-inch) or 1 (10 by 14-inch) plus 1 (12 by 18-inch) focaccia.

NOTE For 2 breads, use the 2 bread recipe above.

Pizza

In my lifetime I’ve seen pizza and bagels become universal standards, adopted and loved by all. (They have gone far beyond their ethnic origins.) However, one pizza stands out in my memory. As a youth I patronized a restaurant on the east side of midtown Manhattan that served the most outstanding pizza in New York. It was baked in an old coal-fired tile oven with tremendous heat. The crust was thin and crisp, the hot olive oil burned the roof of your mouth, and the cheese seemed capable of stretching all the way out the front door. Although the restaurant has been gone for many years, the memory lingers on. This pizza dough is nondairy, so for a nondairy pizza, skip the cheese topping.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add 2 tablespoons olive oil, the all-purpose flour, 4 cups of the bread flour, and the salt; mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. This dough should be softer than usual so that it can easily be stretched. Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, but keeping the dough somewhat soft. Knead for 10 to 15 minutes. You want to develop the gluten to be as strong as possible.

Transfer the dough to a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn top to bottom until coated. Cover and set aside until the dough doubles in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Punch down the dough and cut into thirds. Shape into rounds, cover, and let rest for 15 minutes. At this point the dough can be frozen or refrigerated for later use.

SHAPING Roll out the dough and stretch each portion into a 14-inch round on a greased pizza pan or baking sheet.

TOPPING Spread the sauce to within ½ inch of the edges. Arrange the toppings and drizzle with olive oil. The way I do it is to spiral a ladleful or more of pizza sauce on the dough and spread it with the bottom of the ladle. Then I add salt, pepper, and oregano, then spiral olive oil over the top from a spouted oil can. Allow to rest for a few minutes before baking. Since the heat of a pizza oven cannot be duplicated in the home kitchen, wait until the pie is half baked before adding any cheese.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 500°F to 550°F. Bake until the edges begin to brown, then remove the pizza from the oven. Add the cheese and additional olive oil. When using a pizza stone or oven tiles, you can slide the pizza off the pan and onto a wooden peel at this point if you like. Return the pizza to the oven and bake until the cheese is bubbly and the edges are crisp. You might try turning the broiler on for 1 or 2 minutes to melt the cheese. If you are lucky, the edges may become slightly charred. Carefully lift an edge and check that the bottom is baked. The overall baking time should be 20 to 35 minutes, depending upon the thickness of the crust.

YIELD Makes 3 pizzas.

Variation

Pizza Torte

These pies are decorative at the dinner table or buffet and lend a party air to special occasions. A fluted 8- to 10-inch tart pan 1 inch deep is necessary. A French tart pan with a removable bottom is the easiest to use. Roll out rounds of pizza dough to about ⅛ to ¼ inch thick and 1 inch wider than the pan. Gently transfer the dough to the greased pan. Trim the excess by rolling a stick across the top of the pan. Proceed with Topping and Baking, as above. Several of these can be made and baked in advance, then rewarmed before serving. They are also good served cold.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, 2 tablespoons olive oil, all-purpose flour, 1 cup of the bread flour, and the salt. Mix until smooth. Add 3 more cups flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough comes together and tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Process for about 2 to 3 minutes. Do not allow the dough to overheat. A dough thermometer should read 78°F to 82°F. You may need to process longer to reach this temperature. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. This dough should be softer than usual to allow stretching.

Turn out into a clean, oil-coated bowl, and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping, Topping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 3 pizzas.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, 3 tablespoons olive oil, all-purpose flour, 6 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Keep in mind that this is a soft dough.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to develop the gluten.

Remove the hook, add oil to the bowl, and turn the dough top to bottom to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping, Topping, and Baking, above, except shape into 4 or 5 pizzas.

YIELD Makes 4 thick or 5 thin pizzas.

Semolina Bread

Semolina, a rich golden durum wheat flour employed in making pasta of the highest quality, is used by Italian bakers to enrich both the flavor and the texture of their breads. Many of my friends travel great distances to the old ethnic neighborhoods to purchase semolina bread freshly baked in the old coal-burning ovens that were used when our parents were young. Here is my adaptation of this bread formulated for the home baker. Semolina flour is available in some Italian bakeries, natural foods stores, and gourmet and fresh pasta shops.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and let stand in a warm spot until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge, then add the sugar, shortening, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky. Continue kneading vigorously until the dough feels smooth and elastic (10 to 12 minutes). The dough should push back when pressed down.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Punch down, cut in half, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow to rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Form into 2 Italian-shaped loaves (see this page) about 18 inches long. Place the loaves on a baking sheet that has been dusted with cornmeal.

Cover with a cloth and allow to rise until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). Brush the tops with water and sprinkle with sesame seeds. When the bread has proofed, cut 3 diagonal slashes with a sharp knife or razor blade. Hold the knife at an angle to the bread and try to cut inside and underneath the crust. This will cause the bread to break open, or bloom, while baking and form a thick, crunchy crust.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 400°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaves are browned and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). If baking on an oven stone or tiles, the bread can be removed from the baking pans for the last 10 minutes to firm up the crust.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water and flour; pulse until smooth. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse to punch down the sponge, then add the sugar, shortening, 2 cups of the flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process to a dough temperature of 78°F to 82°F (about 2 minutes). Do not overmix. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to double in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and mix at second speed until smooth. Cover and let stand until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the sugar, shortening, 3 cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (10 to 12 minutes). You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (35 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Lavash

This Middle Eastern bread, also known as Armenian bread, Lebanese bread, and the lavash of Georgian Russia, is a large flat bread either cracker crisp or soft. Try it both ways; it is equally good depending on how it is to be used. The Georgian lavash is thick and breadlike.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow a few minutes to soften. Add the oil, 3½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. The dough should be stiff, although it will soften somewhat during kneading. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). The finished dough should push back when pressed down.

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover with plastic wrap or a damp towel and set aside until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Punch down and divide into 10 equal pieces. Shape into rounds and roll into tight balls. Coat with oil, cover, and allow to rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING On a clean, floured work surface, roll out each ball into a circle 10 to 12 inches or more across and as thin as possible, turning over or letting the dough rest if it resists. Cover and let rest for 15 minutes.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 500°F. Oven tiles or a baking stone works best. If neither is available, place 2 baking pans upside down on the middle shelf of the oven and let them preheat for at least 5 minutes. Drape each lavash over a rolling pin (stick type) or dowel and roll the dough off into the oven. Prick any large bubbles that form during baking with a long skewer or fork. Bake until flecked all over with brown spots (15 to 20 minutes). Remove the lavash with a long-handled spatula. For a crisp, cracker-type bread, allow them to cool singly. If soft lavash is desired, stack them one on top of another between 2 towels and cover. When all are baked, sprinkle each with a little water, fold into quarters, and keep covered until cool.

Lavash can be eaten warm or left to cool in the toweling, then placed in plastic bags. Refrigerate or freeze in plastic bags.

YIELD Makes 10 lavash.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the recipe above, instead of 1½ cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, oil, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse to combine. Add 1½ more cups flour, ¾ cup at a time. Process until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time, as required. This dough should be a little stiff. Pulse for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not overmix. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand may be necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 10 lavash.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

For a lower yield, use the ingredients list in the hand-mixed version. For this recipe, the smaller quantities will work fine in a stand mixer.

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the oil, 5¼ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if required.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed, adding more flour in small amounts as necessary. Although the dough should start out stiffer than usual, it will soften somewhat during mixing. The finished dough should be smooth and elastic. Tend to the mixer bowl at all times lest it jump off the saddle or cause the machine to walk. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 15 lavash.

YIELD Makes 15 lavash.

London Bloomers

British foods sometimes have extraordinary names, such as singing hinnies (a type of scone or biscuit), bangers and mash (fried breakfast meat and mashed potatoes), bubble and squeak (mashed potatoes with greens mixed in, fried into inch-thick pancakes), or toad-in-the-hole (Yorkshire pudding with little franks or wurst baked inside). So an English bread called London Bloomers is not that unusual.

My friend Bob Schild worked in bakeries in London for several years. He became proficient at baking British breads and cakes and was also a connoisseur of fiery Indian food. This recipe is adapted from his formula. As he tells it, the bread is distinguished by thirteen diagonal slashes across the top. It seems that London master bakers have been known to become violent if an employee didn’t make exactly thirteen cuts!

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the milk powder, cake flour, 4 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

RISING Transfer the dough to a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until the dough doubles in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Punch down the dough, cut in half, and shape into rounds. Cover and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans and proof, covered, in a warm, draft-free area until doubled in volume. Brush with water or a cornstarch solution, then sprinkle with the poppy seeds. Cut 13 diagonal slashes across the width of the loaves.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaves are browned and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). Brush the bread again after removing it from the oven. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, milk powder, cake flour, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until smooth. Add 3 more cups all-purpose flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough comes together and tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Process for about 2 to 3 minutes. Do not allow the dough to overheat. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, milk powder, cake flour, 6 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to develop the gluten. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Millet Rye Bread

Healthful and nourishing, millet is an age-old grain and one of the first to be cultivated. As used here, toasted and mixed with rye flour, it makes for a new and exotic flavor. Millet is a staple in the diet of many African peoples.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, pour the boiling water over the millet. Let cool until lukewarm. Add the yeast and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to stand until tripled in volume and beginning to fall back (about 1 hour). The time will vary with room and dough temperature.

DOUGH Stir down the sponge, then add the water, honey, shortening, rye flour, 2½ cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels soft and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Cut the dough in half, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow to rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 long pan-shaped loaves (see this page). Place on a flour-dusted baking pan or into 2 greased and floured 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Cover with a flour-dusted cloth and allow to rise until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). When the bread has fully proofed, slash with 6 to 8 deep diagonal cuts. Brush the tops with water or cornstarch solution.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until golden brown (35 to 45 minutes). For the last 5 minutes of baking, remove from the pans and place on an oven stone or tiles if you have them. The bread is done when it emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTES Hulled millet can be found in natural foods stores, Indian groceries, and some ethnic markets. Do not buy it in pet shops, since it will be unhulled and may have been treated with unsafe chemicals. Toast millet on the stovetop in a dry cast-iron skillet over medium heat, stirring or shaking until toasted and popping (about 5 minutes).

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In the work bowl, pour the boiling water over the millet. Let cool until lukewarm. Add the yeast and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to stand until tripled in volume and beginning to fall back (about 1 hour). The time will vary with room and dough temperature.

DOUGH Punch down the sponge, then add the honey, shortening, rye flour, 2½ cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. While pulsing the machine, add 1 cup warm water, mixing until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 1 minute. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, pour the boiling water over the millet. Let cool until lukewarm. Add the yeast and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to stand until tripled in volume and beginning to fall back (about 1 hour). The time will vary with room and dough temperature.

DOUGH Stir down the sponge, then add the warm and ice waters, honey, shortening, rye flour, 3¾ cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Knead until the dough feels soft and silky (8 to 10 minutes)

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Millet Rye Bread, Country Style

Millet has an interesting flavor and is high in vitamins and minerals. You will receive many compliments when you serve this with meat or poultry to sop up extra sauce. It also works well for hot open-faced sandwiches. Prepare the sponge 4 to 6 hours in advance or preferably overnight.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, pour the boiling water over the toasted millet. Let cool until lukewarm. Add the yeast and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to stand at room temperature for 4 to 6 hours or preferably overnight.

DOUGH In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the sponge, 3 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough is soft and elastic (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer to a clean, oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Punch the dough down, cut in half, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow to rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape the dough into 2 rounds or loaves and place on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal or rye flour. Cover with a damp cloth and allow to rise until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). Brush with water, sprinkle with sesame seeds, and cut 3 diagonal slashes in each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 400°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until golden brown (25 to 30 minutes). For the last 5 minutes of baking, remove from the pans and place on an oven stone or tiles if you have them. The bread is done when it emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips and the sides feel hard and crisp.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTES Hulled millet can be found in natural foods stores, Indian groceries, and some ethnic markets. Do not buy it in pet shops, since it will be unhulled and may have been treated with unsafe chemicals. Toast millet on the stovetop in a dry cast-iron skillet over medium heat, stirring and shaking until popping and barely browned (about 5 minutes).

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE Prepare the sponge as above. Cover and allow to stand at room temperature for 4 to 6 hours or preferably overnight.

DOUGH In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the sponge, 3 cups of the flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 1 minute. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to a clean, oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, pour the boiling water over the toasted millet. Let cool until lukewarm. Add the yeast and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to stand at room temperature for 4 to 6 hours or preferably overnight.

DOUGH In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the sponge and pulse a few times with the on/off switch. Add 5 cups of the flour and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook.

Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). Add additional flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Murray’s Kashi Bread

The excellent cereal Kashi contains seven grains plus sesame seeds. My friend Murray Pudalov discovered this puffed-grain cold cereal in his local market and enjoyed it with milk and fruit for breakfast. One day when I was visiting, I found that he was being joshed by his entire family for an incident involving his breakfast cereal. It seems that there are two kinds of Kashi. One is the puffed grain, and the other is a dry grain that is cooked into a hot cereal. Unknowingly, my friend purchased the dry grain, poured it into his breakfast bowl, added milk, and attempted to eat it. “Not to worry,” I told him. “Give me the cereal and I will make a bread with it.” A few days later I presented him with three loaves of Murray’s Kashi Bread.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Add the honey, oil, milk powder, cooked Kashi, rye flour, whole wheat flour, ½ cup of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. Turn out and knead, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time as necessary. Knead until smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). Cut the dough in half, shape into rounds, cover with a damp towel, and let rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into pan loaves (see this page) and place, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Allow to rise, covered, until doubled in size (about 45 minutes). Brush with water and slash once down the length of the loaves. Place on a baking sheet.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) on the middle shelf until the loaves are golden and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). The top and sides should be firm, not soft. Remove from the pans for the last 5 to 10 minutes of baking to improve the crust.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and process until smooth. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse to punch down the sponge, then add the honey, oil, milk powder, cooked Kashi, rye flour, whole wheat flour, ¼ cup of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 1 minute. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out onto a floured work surface. Shape into a round, cover with a damp towel, and let rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into a pan loaf (see this page) and place, seam down, in a greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pan; for smaller loaves, shape into rounds. Allow to rise, covered, until doubled in size (about 45 minutes). Brush with water and slash once down the length of the loaf. Proceed as in Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and let rise until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the honey, oil, milk powder, cooked Kashi, rye flour, whole wheat flour, ¾ cup of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too moist or soft, add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten. Turn out onto a floured surface, cut into 3 pieces, shape into rounds, and cover. Allow the dough to rest for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into pan loaves (see this page) and place, seam down, in 3 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Allow to rise, covered, until doubled in size (about 45 minutes). Brush with water and slash once down the length of the loaves. Proceed as in Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Naan

Naan, a kissing cousin to Mideastern pita or lavash, is a chewy, blistered bread baked in a tandoor, a vertical clay oven commonly used in northern India. This recipe uses yeast as the leavening agent, as opposed to Sourdough Naan (this page), which uses baking powder and baking soda.

Tandoori baking is a fine art that must be learned over many years. Skill is a necessity, as oven temperatures exceed 700°F. The tandoori chef rolls and stretches the bread on the back of the hand and slaps it against the side of the clay tandoor, where it firmly adheres while swelling up and baking. Although the fierce heat of the tandoor cannot be duplicated in the home kitchen, naan can be baked at home. Naan is best when freshly baked and served warm, although it freezes well and can be reheated.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the yogurt, oil, 4 cups of the flour, and the salt; mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead. You may add more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky, but bear in mind that this dough should be soft. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). The finished dough should push back when pressed down.

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover with plastic wrap or a damp towel and set aside for 30 minutes. Gently press all the air out of the dough and allow to rise once more until doubled in volume (20 to 30 minutes). Punch down, roll out into a rope, and divide into 12 pieces. Shape into rounds with your palms by cupping them over the dough. Coat the rounds with oil, cover, and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING On a clean, oiled work surface, flatten the first round with your palms. Roll out or press into a 6-inch circle, turning at least once to coat with oil. Use your fingertips to press a series of indentations all over the bread.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 550°F. A baking stone or oven tiles work best. Otherwise, place 2 baking pans upside down on the middle shelf of the oven and let them preheat for at least 5 minutes. Cook 1 or 2 naan at a time. Drape each over the palm of your hand and flip it over onto the hot tiles. Use caution not to burn your hands. Bake for about 1 minute. With a long barbecue fork or skewer, pierce any extra-large bubbles that appear. Immediately turn on the broiler. With the door closed, continue baking until the tops of the naan begin to brown (1 to 1½ minutes). Switch the oven back to the bake setting. Remove the naan immediately with a long-handled spatula and cover by placing in the folds of a clean towel. Continue baking 1 or 2 naan at a time, stacking them 5 high in the towel and keeping them covered. Naan is best when served warm. If desired, let cool in the towel and freeze or refrigerate in plastic bags.

YIELD Makes 12 naan.

NOTE In place of yogurt, you can substitute water (for nondairy), milk, skim milk, or sour cream.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Before starting, make sure that the yogurt is cold.

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the cold yogurt, oil, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse to combine. Add 2 more cups flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. You may add more flour if the dough is too sticky, but bear in mind that this dough should be soft. Pulse for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not overmix. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand may be necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 12 naan.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

For half the yield, use the ingredients list in the hand-mixed version. Those smaller quantities will work fine in the stand mixer.

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the yogurt, oil, 8 cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More flour can be added in small amounts as necessary, but bear in mind that this dough should be soft. The finished dough should be smooth and elastic. You can mix at second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. If the motor strains excessively, stop and use first speed. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except divide the dough into 24 pieces.

YIELD Makes 24 naan.

Nine-Grain Bread

In my bakery we made a seven-grain bread, which was very popular. When I sought to duplicate this bread for the home and was looking for a source of readily available grains, I found a seven-grain cereal in many natural foods stores that proved to be economical and quite tasty. The bread I made from it has sesame seeds added and is rolled in oatmeal flakes before baking; voilà, nine-grain bread!

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the honey, shortening, milk powder, cooked cereal, all-purpose flour, 2½ cups of the whole wheat flour, the salt, and the sesame seeds. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead, adding more whole wheat flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer the dough to a clean, oil-coated bowl and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Punch down the dough and cut it in half. Shape into rounds, cover, and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page), brush with water, and roll in rolled oats to coat. Place the breads, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Proof, covered, until the loaves form nicely rounded tops and rise to the top of the pans or slightly above. Place the breads on a baking sheet. Slash each loaf once lengthwise down the center with a sharp knife or razor blade.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaves are browned and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTE Cook the cereal in boiling water until softened. Use ⅓ cup cereal to 1 cup water (½ cup cereal to 1½ cups water in the stand mixer recipe).

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, honey, shortening, milk powder, cooked cereal, 2½ cups of the whole wheat flour, the salt, and the sesame seeds. Mix until the flour is incorporated. Add 2 cups of the all-purpose flour and blend, then add the remaining 1 cup all-purpose flour. More whole wheat flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for about 2 to 3 minutes. Do not overmix. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out into a clean, oil-coated bowl, and turn top to bottom to coat. Cover and let stand until the dough doubles in volume (40 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the honey, shortening, milk powder, all-purpose flour, 4 cups of the whole wheat flour, the cooked cereal, the sesame seeds, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More whole wheat flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Remove the hook, add oil to the bowl, and turn the dough top to bottom until coated. Cover and allow to double in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Oat Rye Bread, Country Style

At a renowned Boston restaurant, I once tasted an exceptionally good bread that inspired the development of this crusty whole-grain loaf. For a nondairy loaf, use shortening or half shortening and half vegetable oil instead of the butter.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH In another large bowl, combine the honey, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, rye flour, oats, and the salt. Cut or rub in the butter or shortening. Add the sponge and mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface and knead, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time as necessary. Knead until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes). Cover with a damp towel and let stand for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Punch down the dough, then shape into a tight round loaf to make 1 large loaf or cut in half and shape into 2 regular-size round loaves. Proof, covered, on a baking pan dusted with cornmeal or rye flour until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes). Brush lightly with water or the cornstarch solution. Stipple (punch holes) in the tops of the loaves.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 380°F. Bake with steam (see this page) on the middle shelf of the oven. When the top first begins to brown, after 15 to 20 minutes, brush once more with water or the cornstarch solution to ensure a shiny crust. Bake until the bread is golden and emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (45 to 60 minutes). A single large loaf will require more baking time (10 to 15 minutes longer). The top and sides should not be soft. Remove from the oven, brush again, and let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 regular-size loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and process until smooth. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge. Add the honey, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, the rye flour, oats, salt, and the butter. Pulse until the ingredients are incorporated and the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Mix for about 1 minute. Do not allow the dough to overheat. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 regular-size loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the honey, butter, rye flour, oats, 2½ cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 2 large or 4 small loaves.

YIELD Makes 2 large loaves or 4 small loaves.

Whole Wheat Oatmeal Bread

This bread is best when baked in a loaf pan and sliced for sandwiches or toasted. Oatmeal adds a distinct rough texture and nutty flavor and keeps the bread moist. The salt can be omitted or a salt substitute can be used (see Note).

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flours and stir until smooth. Cover and set aside in a warm place until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge and add the honey, oil, milk powder, whole wheat flour, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, the rolled oats, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface and knead, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time as necessary. Knead until smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes). Cut the dough in half and shape into 2 balls. Cover with a damp towel and let stand for 10 to 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place the loaves, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Allow to rise until doubled in size, or until the tops are nicely rounded and the breads have risen slightly above the top of the pans (30 to 45 minutes). Brush with water and slash once down the length of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 380°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaves are golden and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (45 to 60 minutes). The top and sides should not be soft. Remove from the pans for the last 10 minutes of baking time to develop a better crust. Remove from the oven, brush again with water, and let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTE If the salt is omitted, the final rise will take place quite rapidly. Do not allow the loaves to over-proof.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In place of 2 cups of warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water and the flours and pulse until smooth. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in size (about 30 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge, then add the honey, oil, milk powder, whole wheat flour, 1 cup of the all-purpose flour, the rolled oats, and the salt. Pulse until the ingredients are thoroughly incorporated and the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. Process for about 60 seconds. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water and flours and mix at first speed until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the honey, oil, milk powder, whole wheat flour, 1½ cups of the all-purpose flour, the oats, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. If the dough is too soft, add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Pita

Also known as pocket bread, pita has become universal in use. A soft, chewy bread, it opens up to form a pocket that can be conveniently stuffed with all kinds of sandwich fillings. Its origin is in the Middle East, where small pieces of pita are torn off and used in place of utensils to scoop up bits of food or dips. Vegetarians and health food proponents have adopted these breads as their own and bake them with whole wheat flour for additional flavor and nutritive value. For an all-white pita, you can substitute unbleached all-purpose flour for the whole wheat flour called for in this recipe.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the oil, whole wheat flour, 3 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead. You may add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky, but bear in mind that this dough should be soft. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). The finished dough should push back when pressed down.

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover with plastic wrap or a damp towel and set aside until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Punch down and divide into 12 equal pieces, then shape into balls. Cover and allow to rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING On a clean, floured work surface, press or roll out the rounds into 6-inch circles. Cover and allow to rest for 15 minutes.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 500°F. Oven tiles or a baking stone works best. If neither is available, place 2 baking pans upside down on the middle shelf of the oven and let them preheat for at least 5 minutes. Slide the pita into the oven 1 or 2 at a time using a board or peel. An alternate method would be to place them on cornmeal-sprinkled baking sheets. Do not open the oven door for the first 10 minutes so that the breads can puff up. Bake until they are lightly browned. Remove the bread with a long-handled spatula and keep covered by placing between 2 towels. Continue baking 1 or 2 at a time, stacking the finished breads 6 high in the towels. The breads will collapse as they cool. Pita can be eaten warm, or let them cool in the towels, then refrigerate or freeze in plastic bags.

YIELD Makes 12 pitas.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, oil, whole wheat flour, and salt. Pulse to combine. Add 3 cups of the all-purpose flour, 1 cup at a time. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. You may add more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if needed, but bear in mind that this dough should be soft. Pulse for 2 to 3 minutes. Do not overmix. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Extra kneading by hand may be necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 12 pitas.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

For a lower yield, use the ingredients list in the hand-mixed version. For this recipe, the smaller quantities will work fine in a stand mixer.

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the oil, whole wheat flour, 4½ cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More flour can be added in small amounts as necessary, but bear in mind that this dough should be soft. The finished dough should be smooth and elastic. You can mix at second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten. If the motor strains excessively, stop and use first speed. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 18 pitas.

YIELD Makes 18 pitas.

Soft Pretzels

This recipe is for old-fashioned German or Pennsylvania Amish–style soft pretzels. They are wonderful when sprinkled with coarse salt and (my favorite) topped with smear of mustard. Some folks dip them in sesame seeds, others knead in grated Parmesan cheese. For a very different flavor, sprinkle with cumin seeds before baking. Merely follow along, one step at a time, and success will be assured. You will find yourself preparing double batches to satisfy all of the hungry children.

This dough is fairly stiff, so it’s difficult to prepare by hand. In addition to your usual baking supplies, you’ll need a 4-quart pot for dipping the pretzels and a skimmer or slotted spoon.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the water and allow it to soften. Add the flours, brown sugar, molasses, 1 tablespoon of the oil, and the salt and mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead only until the dough becomes smooth. The dough should be softer than the usual bread dough.

RISING Place the dough in a clean, oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and set aside until doubled in volume (about 30 minutes). Alternatively, cover and allow the dough to rise in the refrigerator for several hours or overnight. Allow to come to room temperature before using.

SHAPING It is not necessary to punch down the dough. Cut the dough into 3 equal pieces (I use a scale so the pieces will all be of equal weight), then cut each piece into thirds. Roll out in ropes about 28 inches long and about ¼ inch wide. If the dough resists rolling, set it aside and roll out the rest of the pieces. Then, starting with the first resistant rope, roll out into the required length. To form the pretzel shape, bring the ends around into a horseshoe shape. Overlap the ends and twist once, then bring the ends up to form a pretzel shape. Press the ends down hard to adhere to the top of the pretzel. Lightly oil or grease a baking sheet. Place 3 to 6 pretzels on a sheet, evenly spaced, leaving room for them to rise. Set aside, covered, until doubled in size, about 30 minutes. Meanwhile, combine the baking soda and water in a large pot and heat until very hot but not boiling.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 450°F. Line a baking sheet with aluminum foil, shiny side down.

Remove the baking soda water from the heat. Carefully drop one pretzel at a time into the heated water, turn once, remove using a slotted spoon or a skimmer, and place right side up on the baking sheet. Sprinkle with the pretzel salt. Repeat with the rest of the pretzels.

Bake the pretzels, turning once after the first 3 to 4 minutes, for a total of 8 to 10 minutes, until lightly browned. Let cool slightly on the baking sheet. Meanwhile, combine the butter and the remaining 4 tablespoons of oil in a shallow bowl. Dip each pretzel into the glaze on both sides, then transfer to a wire rack to cool completely.

YIELD Makes 8 to 9 pretzels.

NOTE Pretzel salt is much better in this application. The granules are larger, do not melt during baking, and are more toothsome to the bite. Look for pretzel salt in Amish markets and some ethnic markets. Or ask a local bagel baker to sell you some.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1¼ cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the water and allow it to soften. Add the ice water, flours, brown sugar, molasses, 1 tablespoon of the oil, and the salt and pulse until all of the ingredients are combined. Process until the dough forms up into a ball and spins around the sides. Remove and knead lightly by hand for a few minutes. The dough should be softer than the usual bread dough. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Use the hand mixing recipe above. The recipe may be doubled. In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the water and allow it to soften. Add the flours, brown sugar, molasses, 1 tablespoon of the oil, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. Turn out onto a flour-dusted work surface. Knead only until the dough becomes smooth. The dough should be softer than the usual bread dough. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 12 pretzels.

YIELD Makes 6 large pretzels.

Psomi

This is my version of a bread I first tried in a small bakery in New Hampshire. It’s sort of a kissing cousin to New England’s anadama bread. (Psomi, pronounced sew-me, is a Greek word meaning “bread.”)

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the buttermilk and flour and mix until smooth. Cover with a cloth or plastic wrap and set aside until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes).

DOUGH Add the honey, butter, 2 cups of the flour, the salt, and the toasted sesame seeds. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more flour in small amounts if the dough is sticky. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes).

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Punch down the dough, cut in half, then let rest, covered, for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page) and roll in sesame seeds. Place, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans or leave free-form on floured baking sheets. Cover and proof until the loaves double in size. Score each loaf with 3 diagonal cuts and brush with water.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. If you have an oven stone or tiles, free-form loaves may be baked directly on them. Bake on the middle shelf of the oven until the bread has color and emits a hollow sound when thumped lightly on the bottom with your fingertips (35 to 45 minutes). If baking pan loaves, remove from the pans for the last 5 to 10 minutes of baking for a crustier loaf. After removing from the oven, brush again with water and let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

SPONGE In the recipe above, instead of the ½ cup warm water and buttermilk at room temperature use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the buttermilk and flour and process until smooth. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge, then add the honey, butter, 2 cups of the flour (1 cup at a time), the salt, and the toasted sesame seeds. Pulse until the ingredients are incorporated, then continue pulsing until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. Process or pulse until the dough reaches 78°F (about 1 minute). Do not overmix. If necessary, turn out and knead lightly by hand for several minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, remove the dough and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the buttermilk and flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes).

DOUGH Add the honey, butter, 3 cups of the flour, the salt, and the toasted sesame seeds. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten. If the motor becomes excessively strained, use first speed. Remove the dough hook, cover, and proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

100% Whole Wheat Bread

Most recipes for whole wheat bread are formulated using part whole wheat and part white flour, even though they are called whole wheat bread. Some will actually be labeled all wheat or 100% wheat bread. The following recipe uses all whole wheat flour. If you like whole-grain breads, the exceptional flavor of these loaves will appeal to you. They are made with wholesome ingredients: sweet dairy butter, unrefined sweeteners, and low-fat milk. For a cholesterol-free bread, use vegetable oil instead of butter. When using all whole wheat flour, it is important that all the flour not be added at one time. This is essential for the proper development of the dough.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the buttermilk and flour. Mix with a wooden spoon until smooth. Cover with a cloth and place in a warm area until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes).

DOUGH Add the honey, butter, 2 cups of the flour stirred in 1 cup at a time (important), and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead, adding more flour in small amounts until the dough is firm. Because it is made of all whole wheat flour, the dough will tend to be heavier than usual and may remain a bit sticky. Dust lightly with flour as necessary. Knead for about 8 minutes, until the dough feels elastic and pushes back when pressed. Do not hesitate to knead for a longer time.

NOTE The dough will be heavy, will tend to tear easily, and will not rise as readily as a regular dough. This is normal. Cut in half, shape into rounds, and allow to rest, covered, for 10 to 15 minutes.

SHAPING Punch down and shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Place into 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans, cover loosely, and allow to rise until the dough reaches above the rims of the pans (45 to 60 minutes). Brush with water or melted butter.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaves are well browned and sound hollow when tapped on the bottom with your fingertips and the sides feel firm (about 45 minutes). The loaves can be removed from the pans for the last 5 to 10 minutes of baking to firm up the crust. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

Variations

Cracked 100% Whole Wheat Bread

Cracked wheat bread, made with either bulgur or cracked wheat, has a coarse texture and farm-fresh flavor. This bread is an excellent choice for sandwiches; it also toasts well and is good with butter and jam or served with cheese.

Bulgur, a precooked grain, is available in many supermarkets. Cracked wheat or cracked wheat cereal is most easily found in natural foods stores. To soften bulgur, soak in boiling water for 40 minutes, then drain. Cracked wheat must be cooked as a cereal until soft. For 1 cup cooked cracked wheat, cook ⅓ cup cereal in 1 cup water until tender. (For the stand mixer recipe, cook ½ cup cereal in 1½ cups water.) Let cool before using.

To the dough, add:

Sprouted Whole Wheat Bread

This bread is fun to make. Crunchy and filled with nutrients, it tastes good, too. If desired, you can substitute almost any small sprouts, either homegrown or purchased, but try it with sprouted wheat berries for a natural, all-wheat bread. If you wish, roll the shaped loaves in ½ cup sesame seeds before placing in the baking pans (¾ cup sesame seeds in the stand mixer recipe).

To the dough, add and mix as usual:

For the stand mixer, add:

Nutted Whole Wheat Cocktail Bread

This bread goes exceptionally well with a cheese tray, and can be served with cocktails or after the meal in place of dessert. When served with cream cheese and a beverage, it makes a complete meal. Increase the amount of walnuts if you like.

After kneading, flatten the dough with your palms, then sprinkle the top with:

Knead until well distributed. Cut in half, shape into rounds, and allow to rest, covered, for 10 minutes. Punch down and shape into 2 narrow pan loaves (3 loaves in the stand mixer recipe) 10 to 12 inches long (see this page).

Set on a cornmeal-dusted baking sheet, cover loosely, and allow to rise until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). Brush with egg wash (1 egg beaten with 1 teaspoon water and a pinch of salt) and cut a series of diagonal slashes ¼ inch deep and ½ inch apart, taking care to cut from edge to edge (not just the tops). Allow the egg wash to dry for several minutes and brush a second time to ensure a shiny crust.

Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake until the loaves are a deep mahogany color and emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (about 45 minutes). If you have an oven stone or tiles, transfer to them after the first 25 minutes. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the above recipe, use chilled instead of room-temperature buttermilk.

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the chilled buttermilk and flour and process until smooth. Let stand, covered, until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge, then add the honey, butter, 2 cups of the flour stirred in 1 cup at a time (important), and the salt. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky. Pulse until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, then continue to pulse for about 1 minute to knead. Do not overmix. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately; then knead together by hand. Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead together, then proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the buttermilk and flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes).

DOUGH Add the honey, butter, 3 cups of the whole wheat flour stirred in 1 cup at a time (important), and the salt. Run at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed for 8 to 10 minutes, adding more whole wheat flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky or refuses to clean the sides of the bowl and gather up around the dough hook.

Turn out onto a floured work surface, cut into 3 pieces, and proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Whole Wheat Raisin
Nut Bread

This bread can accompany any light meal and also goes well with salads or cheese and fruit. The way I like it best is thinly sliced and made into cream cheese sandwiches served with an apple and chocolate milk.

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the buttermilk and flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge, then add the honey, butter, 2½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). The finished dough should push back when pressed down. Knead in the raisins and walnuts. Cut the dough in half, shape into rounds, cover, and allow to rest for 10 to 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page) and place, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Allow to rise, covered, until the breads come up over the top of the pans (about 45 minutes).

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until the loaves are nicely browned and they emit a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips (40 to 45 minutes). The loaves can be removed from the pans for the last 5 minutes of baking to firm up the crust.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the above recipe, use chilled instead of room temperature buttermilk.

SPONGE In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the chilled buttermilk and flour and pulse until smooth. Allow to stand, covered, until doubled in volume (about 20 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse to stir down the sponge, then add the honey, butter, 2½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl and rides up on top of the blade. Add more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky. Pulse until the dough is smooth and elastic (about 1 minute). If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Sprinkle with the raisins and nuts, then knead them into the dough. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Sponge

Dough

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the buttermilk and flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 40 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater, then add the honey, butter, 3¾ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). The finished dough should push back when pressed down. Turn out onto a lightly floured surface, sprinkle with the raisins and nuts, and knead until thoroughly incorporated. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

CHAPTER SIX
Sourdough Breads

My father, a Hungarian baker, told me stories about cooks in Europe whose culinary ability was rated by the quality of their bread. He related that when a young woman married, included in her dowry was some sourdough starter from her mother. These starters were passed on from mother to daughter and, as master yeast is today, the culture was never allowed to die. Small quantities were always kept with which to begin anew.

When I began to work in the bakery, sour was still made by hand—three times daily, each time doubled in volume and fermented in huge wooden troughs. Someone would have to tend to the sour whenever the bakery was closed. Thanks to modern refrigeration, bakeries now make sour at their leisure and refrigerate it at any stage in its development. The first time sour is made, it is begun with a starter. After that, enough is always left behind to begin the next batch.

Rye Sour

Rye Sour is made in three stages, and this is the secret of its success, increasing its flavor and leavening power, but controlling fermentation. To ensure the proper strength of the sour, in each stage you can only double the amount of starter you begin with. For example, if beginning with ¼ cup starter, you can add up to ½ cup water plus flour to thicken. If stage one contains 1 cup sour, stage two can be prepared with up to 2 cups water plus flour. If a large amount of sour is required, extra stages can be added. Never allow the sour to become old or rancid. The following instructions will guide you not only in making rye sour but also in storing and maintaining the sour.

Caraway seeds can be ground in a coffee or spice grinder or with a mortar and pestle, or you can use a rolling pin. The crushed seeds disappear as the sour ferments, but they add a distinctive flavor to the sour. The minced onion helps to hasten the fermentation and adds flavor.

Starter

(Prepare 48 hours in advance.)

Combine all of the ingredients in a large bowl and mix until smooth. The mixture should have a thin, soupy consistency. Cover and allow to stand in a warm spot until bubbly and fermented. It can be left up to 24 hours.

NOTE Save the rest of the packet for the first dough.

RYE SOUR, DEVELOPING AND FORTIFYING In making sour, use approximately ¾ to 1 cup flour to each ½ cup water. (Notice that stage one calls for a higher ratio. This is done to adjust for the initial consistency of the starter.) The object is to make a thick consistency as close as possible to that of a soft dough. It is not necessary to thicken to the point that the mixing becomes burdensome. If the mixture is too soupy, add more flour ¼ cup at a time. Mix until smooth.

Stage One (Prepare 24 hours in advance.)

In a large bowl or container, combine the water, 1¼ cups of the flour, and the starter; stir until smooth. The dough should pull slightly and may start to come away from sides of the bowl. Wipe down the sides of the bowl with wet hands or a bowl scraper. Sprinkle the remaining ¼ cup flour over the entire surface of the sour. Let stand, covered with a cloth or plastic wrap, until doubled in size and the floured top appears cracked with wide fissures. This may take 4 to 8 hours. Avoid letting the sour collapse.

Stage Two

If a double recipe is desired, the ingredients below can be increased to 1 cup warm water and 2 cups rye flour.

To the stage one sour, add the water and ¾ cup of the flour; mix until smooth. Scrape down the sides of the bowl. Sprinkle the remaining ¼ cup flour over the entire surface of the sour. Cover and let rise in a warm area for 4 to 8 hours.

As the sour begins to rise, you can refrigerate it (in the coldest spot in your refrigerator—usually the lowest shelf) at any stage for later use or overnight for mixing the following day. Refrigeration retards the rate of growth of the sour, which continues to rise slowly. Whenever time permits, I prefer to make two stages the day before, refrigerating the second stage overnight and preparing the third stage the morning of baking. If the dough is to be mixed first thing in the morning, the third stage is prepared the evening before, so it can rise slowly all night and be ready in the morning.

Stage Three

Add the water and flour to the stage two sour. Mix until smooth. Additional flour can be added to attain a doughlike consistency. The sour, when fully risen in stage three, is ready for use in bread recipes.

When the third stage is mixed, set aside ¼ to ½ cup of the sour to be used as the starter for the next batch; the next time you are ready to bake with sour, proceed with stage one, above. Refrigerate in a covered nonreactive container with a light film of cold water floated over the top. I have kept sour under refrigeration for months at a time, feeding it a little flour and water every 2 to 3 days.

NOTES Use warm water if the sour has been refrigerated. It is best to stir down the starter every 3 to 4 days if unused. Periodically (every 10 to 12 days) dispose of half the sour and refresh it by mixing in equal amounts of flour and water. If there is some discoloration on the top, it is safe to skim it off and use the sour as usual. When going away for long periods of time, I freeze a small amount of sour. When preparing a new starter from scratch, I add the frozen sour to preserve my original culture.

Sometimes the process goes awry. Perhaps there is insufficient sour left to start the next batch, or the sour might have been forgotten, becoming old or dry while it was left standing. There is a remedy. Bakers call it an einfrisch, meaning “to refresh.” A small amount of sour is thinned down with water to a soupy consistency; even just swishing ¼ cup water around in what remains clinging to the sides of the bowl can yield enough to restart the sour. Let this einfrisch stand, covered, at room temperature or in a warm spot until bubbly. If desperate, add a pinch of yeast. When it’s bubbly, add enough flour to make stage one, allow to rise, and proceed with stages two and three.

Jewish Rye

This is real Jewish rye bread, developed by a Jewish baker for the most demanding audience in the world, the New York consumer. This bread transcends its ethnic boundaries due to its universal appeal. To my knowledge, an authentic version of this recipe has never been published. Bakers, like chefs, are reluctant to part with their recipes and invariably try to hold something back. Few breads offer such a distinct flavor coupled with such a unique crust.

The secret of great rye bread is the sour, or ferment, which gives the bread its outstanding qualities. Sour is the product of the controlled fermentation of rye flour and water. Once it is begun, the baker always saves a small amount of sour each time he or she bakes. This becomes the starter to begin the next batch.

Jewish Rye is made up of water, flour, yeast, and salt. There is no sugar or fat added to this pure bread. Rye bread is ideal for deli sandwiches and as an accompaniment to meat dishes. It is excellent with cheese. A favorite of mine is cream cheese and olives on rye toast. A real Jewish treat (high in cholesterol) used to be a roast beef sandwich on rye with Bermuda onion and chicken fat (shmaltz). My grandmother would take afternoon tea with toasted rye that had the crust rubbed with garlic while still warm. She lived well into her nineties and I always attributed it to the tea and garlic, but now I firmly believe that it was the rye bread.

In a large bowl, soften the yeast in the warm water and add the sour and altus. Without stirring, add 3 cups of the first clear flour, the salt, and the caraway seeds. Gently stir the dry ingredients with your fingertips to incorporate, then stir with a wooden spoon, adding more first clear flour as necessary until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead. If the dough is moist and sticky, add more flour ¼ cup at a time, but be aware that rye dough is softer than other types and will tend to feel sticky. Knead until the dough feels soft and silky (5 to 8 minutes).

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn several times to coat. Cover and allow to rest for 15 to 20 minutes. Punch down.

SHAPING Shape the dough into 2 free-standing pan loaves (see this page). Place on a baking sheet dusted with rye flour or cornmeal, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in size. Brush with the cornstarch solution, then cut 3 horizontal slashes on the top of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). The top and sides should feel hard to the touch. Brush again with the cornstarch solution, then let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTES First clear flour, also called clear flour or common flour, can be hard to find (see this page). You can substitute 3¼ to 4¼ cups all-purpose flour plus ¾ cup cake flour, but the bread won’t taste or look as good. For a milder taste, 2 cups of rye sour can be used instead of 3 cups.

Variations

Onion Rye

Omit the caraway seeds and instead knead Onion Filling and Topping (this page) into the dough immediately after mixing. The tops of the shaped loaves should be rolled in additional onion topping before the final rise.

Marble Rye

Cut each dough in half and flatten all of the pieces with your hands or a small rolling pin. Place one pumpernickel half on top of a rye half and shape jelly-roll fashion into a short loaf. For further variety, shape the second loaf with the pumpernickel on the bottom. This will yield 2 combination breads, 1 rye with pumpernickel swirled inside and the other a brown bread with rye inside.

Cocktail Rye

This can be served plain or with either or both of the fillings and toppings below.

Fillings:

Knead one or both of the fillings into the dough after mixing. Roll the dough into thin baguette shapes about 1 inch in diameter and 12 inches long. Roll the tops in one of the toppings below before the final rise.

Toppings:

NOTE In my bakery, we used pretzel salt. Coarser than kosher salt, it does not dissolve into the crust when baked. If you can’t find pretzel salt through your usual sources, try a bagel shop.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the sour and altus and mix until incorporated. Add the ice water, then mix in 1 cup of the flour and the salt. Next, mix in 3 more cups of the flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft, but keep in mind that this dough will be softer than usual. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix or the dough will get too hot.

Turn out onto a floured work surface, shape the dough into 2 balls, cover, and let rest for 10 minutes. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, 6 cups of the flour, salt, and caraway seeds. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Run at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft, but be aware that rye dough is softer than other types and will tend to feel sticky.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (5 to 8 minutes).

Turn out and shape into 3 balls. Cover and let the dough rest for 15 minutes. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except make 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

NOTES For a milder flavor, 3 cups of Rye Sour can be used instead of 4½ cups, in which case the loaves will be a bit smaller. First clear flour can be difficult to find (see this page). You can substitute 5 to 6½ cups all-purpose flour plus 1 cup cake flour, but the bread won’t taste as good.

Pumpernickel Bread

Pumpernickel flour is a tan, coarse flour made from the first milling of the rye kernel; it is similar in texture to unprocessed bran or coarse whole wheat flour. Real pumpernickel bread is made with Rye Sour, and the best pumpernickel bread is made with altus. Thinly sliced pumpernickel bread makes wonderful cheese and cold-cut sandwiches. It’s also delicious with rich soups. I can make a meal out of raisin pumpernickel bread with butter or cream cheese.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, 2½ cups of the first clear flour, and the salt. Mix thoroughly until the dough pulls away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding small amounts of flour as needed. Make the dough a bit stiffer than normal, since this dough softens as it is kneaded. Knead the dough until it feels smooth and silky (5 to 8 minutes).

RISING Shape the dough into a ball, place in a large oiled bowl, and turn to coat. Cover and let rise until doubled in size, 30 to 40 minutes. Punch down, cut in half, shape into rounds, then let rest, covered, for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 round loaves. Place on a baking sheet lightly sprinkled with cornmeal. Cover with a damp cloth and keep in a warm, draft-free spot until doubled in size. Brush with the cornstarch solution. Punch 5 times with an ice pick or skewer, 1 hole in the center and 4 holes in a circle around the center. With a wet finger, push all the way down in the center hole, leaving a large indent in the middle of the loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (30 to 45 minutes). If you have an oven stone or tiles, bake the loaves directly on them for the last 10 minutes to develop a crusty loaf. If the top of the loaves feel soft, return to the oven and bake 5 to 10 minutes longer. After baking, brush again with the cornstarch solution to ensure a shiny crust. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTES Pumpernickel flour is available in some specialty markets and natural foods stores, or you may get it from from a local bakery or purchase it via the Internet. Pumpernickel flour is often labeled medium rye in supermarkets; use it if you find it. If unavailable, use rye meal, unprocessed bran, or coarse stone-ground whole wheat flour; alternatively, you can finely grind rye cereal in a blender, food processor, or coffee mill. First clear flour, also called clear flour or common flour, may also be obtained from a local bakery or via the Internet. All-purpose flour can be substituted, but the bread will not taste as good. In my bakery, we used pretzel salt. Coarser than kosher salt, it does not dissolve into the crust when baked. Pretzel salt is not easily obtained. If it cannot be found through your usual sources, try a bagel shop or pretzel maker.

Variations

Marble Rye

Follow the directions for Marble Rye on this page.

Raisin Pumpernickel Bread

Plump 1 cup raisins (1½ cups in the stand mixer recipe) in hot water for 30 minutes. Knead into the dough just before shaping the loaves.

Raisin Pumpernickel Bread, Pullman Style

This square-shaped bread lends itself to thin slicing. The Pullman pan in which it is baked creates a dense texture that is exceptionally moist.

Prepare the dough as in Raisin Pumpernickel, above, then shape into a large pan loaf (see this page). Place in a greased 12-inch Pullman pan (see this page) and allow to rise until almost to the top of the pan. Grease the underside of the cover, slide it on, and bake at 375°F. After 35 minutes, remove the top of the pan and bake until done. An alternate method is to put the bread in a long loaf pan, cover with a baking sheet, and lay a heavy ovenproof weight or brick on top while baking. Allow extra baking time for large Pullman loaves (at least 10 to 15 minutes, test by tapping—about 45 to 60 minutes all together).

Onion Pumpernickel

Knead Onion Filling and Topping (this page) into the dough before shaping. Roll the top of the loaves in the onion topping before the final rise.

Cocktail Pumpernickel

Knead caraway seeds or Onion Filling and Topping (this page) into the dough just before shaping, or leave the dough plain. Roll the dough into thin baguette shapes about 1 inch in diameter and at least 12 inches long. Roll the top of the loaves in your choice of toppings (caraway seeds and kosher salt, Onion Filling and Topping, sesame seeds, or simply kosher salt—see note, above) before the final rise, or leave plain.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour and mix until incorporated. Add the altus, ice water, pumpernickel color, and pumpernickel flour and pulse to combine. Mix in 1 cup of the first clear flour and the salt; pulse until incorporated. Mix in 1½ more cups first clear flour, ¾ cup at a time. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix or the dough will get too hot. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, 3¾ cups of the first clear flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Laszlo’s Sourdough Potato Rye Bread with Caraway

This is my father’s recipe, which he brought with him from Hungary. He often reminisced about the old-world potato breads, which were evidently in wide use throughout Europe, where he traveled as a journeyman baker. Sourdough potato rye bread has the flavor of fine rye plus the texture and moisture-retention properties of potato bread. The result is a rye bread that will remain soft and tender for more than a week under normal storage conditions.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Blend in the mashed potato and Rye Sour. Add the first clear flour and stir in the salt with your fingertips to incorporate. Mix with a wooden spoon until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead. Add rye flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary, but keep in mind that rye dough is softer and sticker than other types. Knead the dough until it is elastic (5 to 8 minutes).

Place the dough on an oiled work surface. Cover and let rest for 15 minutes. Punch down, and sprinkle with caraway seeds.

SHAPING Shape into 1 or 2 round loaves. Place on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal or rye flour. Proof, covered, until doubled in size. In the bakery we proofed the loaves and baked them on the oven hearth using a wooden peel. Brush the loaves with water or the cornstarch solution. Stipple with 10 to 12 holes using a skewer or an ice pick.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). If 1 large loaf is made, allow for an additional 10 to 15 minutes of baking time. The top and sides should feel hard to the touch. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 small loaves.

NOTES Peel and quarter a potato and boil in at least 1½ cups water to cover for about 10 minutes or until soft. Drain, reserving 1 cup of the potato water (store extra potato water in the refrigerator for use in any bread recipe). Cool the potato, then mash. Instant mashed potatoes can be used, but you lose the added benefit of the potato water. You can substitute 2½ cups all-purpose flour plus V cup cake or pastry flour for first clear flour, but the bread will not taste as good. If additional flour is required, the sour was too thin. Add rye flour ¼ cup at a time to compensate.

Variation

Onion Potato Rye Bread

Before shaping the bread, knead in Onion Filling and Topping (this page) made with caraway seeds instead of poppy seeds.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup of warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, mashed potato, and Rye Sour; pulse until incorporated. Blend in 1 cup of the first clear flour and the salt, then mix in the remaining 2 cups first clear flour, 1 cup at a time; pulse until incorporated. More rye flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft, but keep in mind that rye dough is softer and stickier than other types. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix or the dough will get too hot. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Shape the dough into 1 or 2 balls. Cover and let rest for 15 minutes. Press down, sprinkle with the caraway seeds, and proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 small loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the mashed potato, Rye Sour, first clear flour, and salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More rye flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Keep in mind that rye dough is softer than usual.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (5 to 8 minutes).

Turn out onto an oiled work surface and shape into 1, 2, or 3 round balls. (Try 1 large loaf. Large breads take longer to bake and hold more moisture. They will be tastier and will last longer. Allow at least 10 to 15 minutes extra baking time.) Cover and let the dough rest for 10 minutes. Press down, sprinkle with the caraway seeds, and proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 large to 3 small loaves.

NOTES Peel and quarter the potatoes. Boil in at least 2 cups water to cover for about 10 minutes, until soft. Drain, reserving 1½ cups of the potato water (store extra potato water in the refrigerator for use in any bread recipe). Cool, then mash. Instant mashed potatoes can be used, but you lose the added benefit of the potato water. You can substitute 3¾ cups all-purpose flour plus ¾ cup cake or pastry flour for the first clear flour, but the bread will not taste as good. If additional flour is required, the sour was too thin. Add rye flour ¼ cup at a time to compensate.

Seven-Grain Bread

This was the most popular of the whole-grain breads in the specialty bakery, and was derived from a popular bread made all over Germany at the time. Rye Sour is the secret of its success. High fiber and a crunchy, nutlike flavor add to its appeal. It is especially good when toasted.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the pumpernickel color, Rye Sour, the softened cereal, 2½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Stir until thoroughly combined and the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead until soft and silky (5 to 8 minutes). More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary. This dough should be on the soft side and does not require extra kneading.

Shape the dough into a ball and place in a clean, oiled bowl, turning several times to coat. Cover with a cloth and let the dough stand until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes).

SHAPING Punch down, divide in half, and shape into 2 pan loaves (see this page). Roll in oatmeal flakes or sesame seeds and place, seam down, in 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Proof, covered, in a warm, draft-free spot until the bread rises above the rims of the pans. Slash once down the length of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 380°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). Remove from the pans for the last few minutes of baking to get a crusty bottom. The top should feel firm when pressed in the center. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

NOTES You can substitute an equal amount of caramel syrup (found in many Hispanic markets), molasses, cocoa powder, or instant coffee in place of pumpernickel color. Keep in mind that they will never be as dark as pumpernickel color. Seven-grain cereal can be found in natural foods stores. To soften the cereal, chop or grind, cover with water, and let soften overnight; alternatively, you can cook it in boiling water for 5 minutes or in the microwave oven for 5 minutes at high power. Use ⅓ cup cereal to 1 cup water (½ cup cereal to 1½ cups water in the stand mixer recipe).

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, pumpernickel color, Rye Sour, the softened cereal, 2½ cups of the flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not allow the dough to overheat. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out into a clean, oiled bowl, turning several times to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, spinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, pumpernickel color, Rye Sour, the softened cereal, 3¾ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (5 to 8 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to a clean, oiled bowl and turn several times to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Whole Wheat Sour Rye Bread

This unique bread has a flavor all its own. The sour in the recipe keeps the bread moist and gives it a long shelf life. Your family will enjoy it toasted or plain with sandwiches and meat entrées. Cheese, lettuce, and tomato provide new flavor experiences when layered between the slices.

In a large bowl, soften the yeast in the warm water. Add the Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, 2½ cups of the rye flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead. If the dough is moist and sticky, add rye flour ¼ cup at a time. Knead until the dough is soft and elastic (5 to 8 minutes). This dough tends to feel a bit sticky until it is well developed.

Transfer to an oiled bowl and turn several times to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Punch down and cut in half, then shape into rounds, cover, and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 2 free-standing pan loaves (see this page). Place on a baking sheet dusted with rye flour or cornmeal. Cover with a floured cloth and allow to rise until doubled in size. Brush with the cornstarch solution, then cut 4 diagonal slashes into the top of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). The top and sides should feel hard to the touch. Brush again with the cornstarch solution. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, Rye Sour, and whole wheat flour. Blend until incorporated. Add 2½ cups of the rye flour (1 cup at a time) and the salt. Pulse until the dough starts to pull away from the sides of the bowl and tries to ride up on top of the blade. More rye flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft, but keep in mind that this dough will be softer than others. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix or the dough will get too hot. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer to an oiled bowl and turn several times to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, 3¾ cups of the rye flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). More rye flour can be added ¼ cup at a time, but keep in mind that this dough tends to be sticky.

Transfer the dough to an oiled mixing bowl and turn several times to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Bavarian Pumpernickel Bread

This 100 percent rye flour bread—gourmet Bavarian pumpernickel at its best—has no wheat, no gluten, no kneading, and no proofing. Rye flour, water, salt, and yeast are all it takes to produce this healthy whole-grain loaf. Made of Rye Sour, pumpernickel flour (medium rye flour), rye berries or kernels, and white rye flour, it is an ancient and flavorful bread. It is good with thick soups, cheese, cold cuts, hearty wursts, and deli meats, or anywhere you would use pumpernickel.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, cooked rye berries, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, and salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding rye flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. This dough will remain wet, with the consistency of heavy clay. Turn out onto a lightly oiled work surface.

SHAPING Grease a Pullman pan (see this page) or loaf pan (about 8 inches by 4 inches by 3 inches). Knead the dough into a ball and form into a cylinder the length of the pan. Place the dough in the pan. Press the dough down evenly; it should come within ¼ inch of the top. If you use a Pullman pan, grease the inside of the cover, and slide it in place before baking. In lieu of a Pullman pan, place the loaf pan on a baking sheet, grease a second baking sheet, and invert it over the top of the bread. During baking, weight down the baking sheet with a heavy ovenproof weight or a brick. Do not proof this bread; bake it right away.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake on the middle shelf of the oven for approximately 45 to 55 minutes. After the first 35 minutes, carefully remove the cover, turn out the bread, and finish baking with the bread inverted directly on an oven stone or clay tiles, or on a baking sheet. The loaf is done when it emits a hollow sound when thumped on the bottom with your fingertips. Let cool on a wire rack, wrap in plastic wrap or aluminum foil, and refrigerate overnight. The next day, cut into very thin slices. Wrap well with plastic wrap and freeze or refrigerate if not used immediately.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

NOTE To cook rye berries, bring 3 cups water to a boil and add 1 cup rye berries (kernels) or chopped rye berries (chop them in a blender or food processor). Return the water to a boil and cook, covered, over low heat, stirring occasionally, until the cereal is tender (about 45 minutes). Leftovers can be used as a breakfast cereal or mixed with cooked rice.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, cooked rye berries, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, and salt. Pulse until thoroughly blended, adding rye flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. This dough will remain wet, with the consistency of heavy clay. Turn out onto a lightly oiled work surface. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, cooked rye berries, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, and salt. Mix until blended. Continue mixing at second or third speed until all of the ingredients are thoroughly incorporated. Add rye flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary. This dough will remain wet, with the consistency of heavy clay. Turn out onto a lightly oiled work surface. Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 2 loaves.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

Hutzelbrot

This is an ancient bread. It is believed to date back before refined sugar was manufactured. I believe that it may have been used as dessert. I once baked this bread for Julia Child. When she saw it, she turned to her producer with a surprised look and asked in a whisper if he had ever heard of the bread. This German black bread with either diced citron or dried apricots and prunes makes for table talk when company comes. Serve as a snack with a beverage and cheese or with cocktails. Try it buttered or just plain. Or use it as dessert.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, 2 cups of the first clear flour, and the salt. Mix thoroughly until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding small amounts of first clear flour as necessary, but do keep this dough a bit soft. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (5 to 8 minutes). Knead in the citron.

RISING Roll the dough into a ball and place in a large oiled bowl, turning several times to coat. Cover and let rise until doubled in size (about 30 to 45 minutes). Punch down, shape into a round, then let rest, covered, for 10 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into 1 large free-standing loaf (see this page). Place directly on a baking sheet sprinkled with cornmeal, cover with a cloth, and proof in a warm, draft-free spot until doubled in size. Brush with the cornstarch solution. In my bakery we mixed rye flour with enough water to make a paste, which the bakers called maszda. This is spread with the hands carefully over the top and sides of the proofed loaf before slashing. Cut a series of diagonal slash marks along both sides of the top of the bread, then stipple a line of holes down the length. The maszda bakes into a gray crusty topping that nicely complements the dark bread.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (45 to 60 minutes). If you are using an oven stone, place the bread directly on it for the last 10 minutes to develop a crusty loaf. If the top crust feels soft, return the bread to the oven and bake 5 to 10 minutes longer. After baking, brush the top with the cornstarch solution again to ensure a shiny crust. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 large loaf.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour and altus; mix until incorporated. Add the ice water, pumpernickel color, and pumpernickel flour and pulse to combine. Mix in 2 cups of the first clear flour (1 cup at a time) and the salt and pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Pulse for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix or the dough will get too hot.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead in the citron by hand. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 large loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, soften the yeast in the warm water. Add the Rye Sour, altus, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, 3 cups of the first clear flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (8 to 10 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. Add the citron using first speed or knead it in by hand.

Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 1 large or 2 small loaves.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 small loaves.

Russian Health Bread

In the bakery, we made a pumpernickel bread with chopped whole grains of rye. These rye “chops” are used in a bread known as Russian Health Bread. It is quite tasty and unusual in appearance.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, rye chops, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, 2½ cups of the first clear flour, and the salt. Mix thoroughly until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead, adding small amounts of first clear flour as necessary, until the dough is smooth and silky (5 to 8 minutes).

RISING Roll the dough into a ball and place in a large oiled bowl, turning to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

SHAPING Punch down, cut into 4 parts, and roll each into a ball. Spill pumpernickel flour into 2 greased 8- or 9-inch loaf pans. Jiggle and turn the pans so that the sides and bottoms are coated. Pour out the excess flour and reserve it for dusting the loaves.

Place 2 balls of dough side by side in each loaf pan. This is called a saddle loaf and breaks easily into 2 breads when done. Dust the tops generously with the reserved pumpernickel flour, then proof, covered, in a warm, draft-free spot until doubled in size. Punch a hole in each half with a blade or skewer and indent by pushing your finger through to the bottom.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). If using an oven stone or tiles, remove the loaves from the pans and bake directly on them for the last 10 minutes to develop a crusty loaf. If the top crust feels soft, return the bread to the oven and bake 5 to 10 minutes longer. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 2 large loaves.

NOTES You’ll need to make your own rye chops. Begin with rye berries or rye cereal, available in natural foods stores, and chop it using a spice or coffee grinder, a blender (in small amounts), or a food processor, which takes longer. Instead of pumpernickel color, you can substitute either 2 tablespoons molasses, 2 tablespoons cocoa powder, or 2 tablespoons instant coffee, or more to suit.

Variation

Pullman Pumpernickel Bread, German Style

This square-shaped bread is excellent for sandwiches, especially when thinly sliced. The Pullman pan in which it is baked creates an exceptionally moist loaf with a dense texture. Shape the dough into a long pan loaf (see this page), place in greased 12-inch Pullman pan (see this page), and allow to rise until ½ inch from the top of the pan. Grease the inside of the cover, slide it on, and bake at 375°F. After 35 minutes, remove the top and bake until done. An alternate method is to put the bread in a long loaf pan, cover with a baking sheet, and weight down the top with a heavy ovenproof weight or brick while baking.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, altus, and ice water. Mix until incorporated. Add the rye chops, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, 2½ cups of the first clear flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix or the dough will get too hot. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 large loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, soften the yeast in the warm water. Add the Rye Sour, altus, rye chops, pumpernickel color, pumpernickel flour, 3¾ cups of the first clear flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the dry ingredients are incorporated enough that the flour won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. More first clear flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Run at first speed until the dough forms up on the hook and comes away from the sides of the bowl (5 to 8 minutes). You can use second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape the dough into 6 balls and make 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Jewish Corn Bread

This bread should really have a chapter of its own. Jewish Corn Bread is the best bread that I know how to make! How can I describe it? It’s middle European in origin. In Europe, corn as we know it in the United States is called maize. Europeans use the word corn to mean “grain” or “staples,” which encompasses wheat, oats, rye, barley, and maize. So when we speak of corn bread in the United States we usually mean bread made from cornmeal, such as corn muffins, corn sticks, cornpone from the South, or johnnycake from New England. The corn bread that I write about here originated in Europe. It is made from rye and wheat flours; there is no corn in it at all. Some folks erroneously refer to it as corn-rye, and mistakenly bake a bread that has both rye and cornmeal in the recipe. I will stick to the proper name.

I have a lot of good things to say about this bread. It is not difficult to make; the recipe is very simple. Like many great breads the world over, it contains only water, flour, salt, and yeast. However, the procedure is different from any other bread and the directions must be followed carefully. There are few bakeries left that haven’t compromised it’s real flavor, moisture, and texture. Follow the directions and success will be assured. I believe that this is the first time it has ever been reproduced for the home baker in its proper version. Don’t let the length of the instructions intimidate you. They are simple. Just go along one step at a time. They are easy to follow.

If you have a heavy-duty electric stand mixer, I recommend that you use it, since corn bread is made from a soft, wet dough that can be difficult to handle. I do not recommend using the food processor for this bread.

In a large bowl, soften the yeast in warm water. Add the Rye Sour, rye flour, and 2 cups of the first clear flour. Stir with a wooden spoon until thoroughly incorporated. Turn out onto a work surface covered with first clear flour. Use a plastic bowl scraper or dough cutter in one hand to help knead what will be a very soft, wet dough. Knead by scraping, folding, pulling, and stretching. Pretend that you are pulling taffy. Continue for 5 minutes. The dough should have some elasticity and resist being stretched. Keep the dough soft. If the dough does not feel lively or elastic, alternately add rye flour then first clear flour ¼ cup at a time, stretching and kneading with each addition. Continue for another 3 minutes. The wetter the dough, the better the bread. The amount of flour will vary depending upon how stiff you made the sour.

Keep a container of cold water nearby. Transfer the dough to a prepared clean, wet bowl. Keeping hands wet at all times, pat the dough down and cover with a film of water. Cover the bowl with plastic wrap and set aside. Allow the dough to rise until doubled in volume, 45 to 60 minutes.

SHAPING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Prepare a baking sheet sprinkled with cornmeal or a mixture of cornmeal and rye flour, upon which the bread will be baked. Wet a clean work surface generously with water. When ready, cover the top of the dough with 2½ tablespoons of the caraway seeds. Keeping your hands wet at all times, scoop out half of the dough and round up by bringing the sides of the dough down to the middle. Keep gathering together until you have a ball of dough. (Like smoothing your hair back along the sides and gathering it together at the back.) Handle the dough gently so that it does not tear. Place it on the wet work surface. Turn and push the sides down and underneath to further round up the bread. Work your hands underneath and gently lift the loaf, setting it down onto the prepared baking sheet. Smooth the dough down with a caressing, circular motion. Press down, flattening out the top. It will spring up in the oven. Sprinkle extra caraway seeds on top. Allow the dough to stand no longer than 10 minutes. You may place it in the oven without standing time. Do not proof.

BAKING Place an empty broiler tray on the oven floor. Brust the bread with the cornstarch solution. Insert the sheet with the bread on the middle shelf of the oven, or on tiles or an oven stone if you have either. Add 6 to 8 ice cubes or 1 cup hot water to the hot broiler tray and shut the door. Be careful to protect your hands and face from the burst of steam. Bake for exactly 5 minutes. Steam in the oven is not desirable after that, so in exactly 5 minutes carefully remove the hot broiler tray with the remaining water. Select a space in advance on which to set the hot pan. Observe caution with the hot water. Slide the bread out, and with a skewer or ice pick, stipple 10 to 12 holes all around the crust, then return to the oven. Reduce the heat to 350°F. After 10 minutes, stipple once more and brush again with the cornstarch solution. When the bread begins to brown, turn and move the bread to ensure even baking. Bake until the crust is hard and unyielding to gentle pressure. Timing will vary depending on the amount of moisture in the dough. It may take 1 hour or longer. The bread is done when tapping the bottom with your fingertips emits a hollow sound and the top and sides are hard. You can continue baking for an additional 10 to 15 minutes (on the tiles or oven stone if using) to make the bread crustier. Remove from the oven, brush the top with the cornstarch solution, and cool on a wire rack. The bread will keep well for upwards of a week in the bread box. It also freezes well and makes wonderful thin-sliced toast.

YIELD 1 large or 2 small loaves.

NOTE Try to get first clear flour from a bakery (or see this page). You can substitute 1½ cups all-purpose flour and ⅓ cup cake or pastry flour, but it won’t come out as good. When you become proficient, you may want to try using a peel the way we did in the bakery (see this page).

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, rye flour, first clear flour, and salt. Mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl. Be patient. If the dough does not come away, run at second speed for a few minutes.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook and continue mixing at second speed for 5 minutes. If the dough does not come away from the sides of the bowl, use third speed for 2 minutes. If it still does not come away, run at first speed and alternately add rye flour then first clear flour ¼ cup at a time, but be aware that this will be a wet, sloppy dough.

Wet a clean mixing bowl by swishing water around the inside. Transfer the dough to the prepared bowl. Keeping your hands wet at all times, remove the hook, pat down the dough, and cover with a film of water. Cover the bowl with plastic wrap, set aside, and allow the dough to rise until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

Sourdough French Bread

Sourdough French Bread has the thick, crisp crust of French bread plus a delightful tang that will have you devouring this loaf with gusto. It is delicious with wine and cheese, soups, meats, sandwiches—anywhere you would use a crusty bread.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, 5 cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix with a large wooden spoon until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a push, turn, fold motion. If the dough is too soft or wet, add more flour ¼ cup at a time while kneading. Knead until smooth and elastic (12 to 15 minutes). The dough should feel as though it is pushing back as you knead. Transfer to an oiled bowl and turn to coat.

RISING Allow the dough to rise, covered, until puffy (about 30 minutes). Punch down, shape into a ball, and allow to rise again, oiled and covered, until doubled in volume (45 to 60 minutes).

SHAPING Punch down again and cut into 4 equal pieces. Shape each into a narrow baguette (see this page) and place, seam down, on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal or in greased baguette pans. Cover with a flour-dusted cloth and proof in a warm, draft-free area until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). Do not add any moisture; this bread likes to be dry proofed. With a sharp knife or razor blade, score 3 to 6 diagonal slashes down the center of each loaf (see this page).

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Place an empty broiler pan on the floor of the oven for 5 minutes. Place the bread on the middle shelf of the oven. Carefully pour 1 cup boiling water or place 8 or 9 ice cubes into the broiler pan in the oven. Protect your hands and face from the burst of steam. Do not open the oven door for at least 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, reduce the oven temperature to 350°F. The bread is done when tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (about 20 minutes more). The top and sides of the bread should be hard to the touch. As long as the color of the crust remains light, an extra 5 to 10 minutes of baking will improve the crust. The bread will have a better crust if it is removed from the pan and baked on tiles or an oven stone for the last 5 minutes. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 4 baguettes.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, Rye Sour, 2 cups of the flour, and the salt. Blend, then add 3 more cups flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if needed. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 4 baguettes.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, Rye Sour, 7½ cups of the flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough forms up into a ball.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed until the dough is smooth and elastic (12 to 15 minutes). More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Turn out into an oiled bowl, and turn once or twice to coat. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 3 large or 6 small baguettes.

YIELD Makes 3 large or 6 small baguettes.

Whole Wheat Sourdough French Bread

This round country-style bread is baked longer than a baguette and retains more moisture. A rough texture and the addition of coarse flour gives this bread a special flavor.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, 2 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Mix with a large wooden spoon until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a push, turn, fold motion. If the dough is too soft or sticky, add more bread flour ¼ cup at a time. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). The dough should push back when pressed. Transfer to an oiled bowl and turn to coat.

RISING Allow the dough to rise, covered, until puffy (about 30 minutes). Punch down, then shape into a round ball, cover, and allow to rise again until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

SHAPING Punch down again, then shape into a ball. Place on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal or rye flour. Cover with a flour-dusted cloth or towel, place in a warm, draft-free area, and allow to rise until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). Dust with flour or brush with water, then use a sharp knife or razor blade to score the top with 4 slashes to form a square.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 475°F. Place an empty broiler pan on the floor of the oven for 5 minutes. Place the bread on the middle shelf of the oven. Quickly pour 1 cup boiling water or place 8 or 9 ice cubes into the broiler pan in the oven. Protect your hands and face from the initial burst of steam. Do not open the oven door for at least 10 minutes. Bake until tapping the bottom of the loaf with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (30 to 45 minutes). The top and sides of the loaf should be hard to the touch. The bread will have a better crust if it is removed from the pan and baked on a tile or baking stone for the last 5 minutes. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

Variations

Substitute pumpernickel (medium rye) for the whole wheat flour for a different flavor. Use rye flour in place of the whole wheat flour.

Shape the dough into very thin, long baguettes, about 1 inch in diameter, for a crusty treat. Shorten the baking time.

Knead in Onion Filling and Topping (this page) and shape into narrow cigar-shaped sticks about 12 inches long. Adjust the baking time.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, 1 cup of the bread flour, and the salt. Blend, then add 1½ more cups bread flour. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More bread flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if needed. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out into an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, 3 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix at first speed until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). More bread flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Turn out into an oiled bowl and turn once or twice to coat. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, but allow additional baking time for the large loaf (30 to 40 minutes all together).

YIELD Makes 1 large loaf.

Sourdough Barley Bread

In the search for healthful foods and new flavors, I came up with this whole-grain bread with a new and interesting flavor. Although using it in bread may seem new to us, barley was known to the ancients and was the chief bread ingredient in Europe as late as the 1500s. This bread keeps moist for a long time and freezes well.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, barley flour, 3 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more bread flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more bread flour in small amounts if the dough is sticky; however, this dough may be kept softer than usual. Continue kneading until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes).

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise for 45 minutes. (This bread does not rise much.) Punch down, cut in half, shape into balls, and allow to rest, covered, for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Punch down and shape into 2 free-form pan loaves (see this page) or 2 round loaves and place on a cornmeal-dusted baking pan. Allow to rest, covered, for 15 minutes. For long loaves, score with 5 to 6 short diagonal cuts. The rounds can be stippled or slashed tic-tac-toe fashion (#).

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). For the last 5 to 10 minutes of baking, remove from the pan and bake on an oven stone or tiles, if you have them.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the ice water, Rye Sour, barley flour, 3 cups of the bread flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More bread flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, and allow to rise for about 45 minutes. (This bread does not rise much.) Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, barley flour, 4½ cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more bread flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. This dough will be softer than usual. More bread flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, and allow the dough to rise for about 45 minutes (this bread does not rise much). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Sourdough Bran Bread

Sourdough Bran Bread has dietary fiber, whole-grain flavor, a long shelf life, and the tang of sourdough. This dark, crusty loaf can be used for sandwiches and goes well with meat and cheese dishes. This bread is best when used a day after baking.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, bran flakes, 4 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more flour in small amounts if the dough is sticky. Continue until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). Transfer to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). Punch down, divide in half, shape into 2 balls, and let rest, covered, for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Punch down once more. Shape each ball into a free-standing pan loaf (see this page) and place, seam down, on a cornmeal-dusted baking sheet. Set aside, covered, in a warm area and allow to proof until doubled in size (45 to 60 minutes). Brush with water or the cornstarch solution, then cut 5 or 6 diagonal slashes across the top of each loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). For the last 5 minutes of baking, remove from the pan and bake directly on an oven stone or tiles, if you have them, to improve the crust.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 2 cups warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, Rye Sour, bran flakes, 2 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Blend until smooth. Add 2 more cups flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Transfer to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 2 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, bran flakes, 6 cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 3 loaves.

YIELD Makes 3 loaves.

Sourdough Country Corn Bread

This is a heavy, moist, and extremely crusty country-style or peasant bread made of mixed grains. It’s good with soups and all manner of meats, including cold cuts or deli meats. It’s also excellent toasted and served with cheese or jam. The crust, which is dusted with flour, cracks haphazardly, creating crisp fissures that add to the bread’s unique character. This bread requires a starter that is aged for at least 6 hours. I do this very simply by mixing a yeast starter the evening before and leaving it to ferment at room temperature overnight.

Starter

Dough

STARTER In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover with plastic wrap or a cloth and set aside at room temperature for at least 6 hours, or overnight.

DOUGH In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add 1 cup of the starter, the cornmeal, 2¾ cups of the flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more flour in small amounts if necessary, but bear in mind that this dough should be softer than usual. Continue kneading until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes).

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, cover, and allow to rise until puffed up (about 30 minutes). Punch down and allow to rise again until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

SHAPING Shape into a ball and place on a cornmeal-dusted baking sheet. Set aside, covered, and allow to rest until puffy (about 30 minutes). Brush with water and dust with rye flour, potato starch, or all-purpose flour. Cut 5 or 6 diagonal slashes across the top of the loaf.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). For the last 5 minutes of baking, remove from the pan and bake on an oven stone or tiles, if you have them, to improve the crust.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

In the Dough recipe above, instead of 1¼ cups warm water use:

Prepare the starter as above.

To make the dough, in the work bowl sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the starter, ice water, cornmeal, 2¾ cups of the flour (approximately 1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if needed, but bear in mind that this dough should be softer than usual. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Starter

Dough

STARTER In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth. Cover with plastic wrap or a cloth and set aside at room temperature for at least 6 hours, or overnight.

DOUGH In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add 1½ cups of the starter, the cornmeal, 4¼ cups of the flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Continue mixing at first speed for 8 to 10 minutes. More flour can be added in small amounts as necessary, but this dough should be soft. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, but allow extra baking time for the larger loaf (45 to 60 minutes).

YIELD Makes 1 large loaf.

Sourdough Olive Bread

This dark-crusted loaf has a special zest that goes well with cheese, luncheon meats, chicken, and salads. Cream cheese sandwiches are one of my favorite uses for this bread. In my bakery, we sometimes used a bicycle form—a cylindrical, ridged metal form resembling a series of wheels lined up in continuous length. The form is greased, the dough is shaped and inserted, and the form is closed and locked. Proofing fills the form completely; when baked, you have a ridged loaf that slices into individual rounds or wheels of bread.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the oil, Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, rye flour, 1½ cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more bread flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more bread flour in small amounts if the dough is sticky, but do keep the dough softer than usual. Continue kneading until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). Knead in the olives.

Transfer to an oiled bowl. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes).

SHAPING Punch down and shape into a broad baguette (see this page) or a round. Score the long bread with a series of short diagonal cuts. The round can be stippled or slashed in a tic-tac-toe fashion.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound (35 to 45 minutes). If a form is used, remove it for the last 5 minutes of baking.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, oil, Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, rye flour, and salt. Blend, then add 1½ cups of the bread flour. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More bread flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead in the olives. Transfer to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the oil, Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, rye flour, 2¼ cups of the bread flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more bread flour ¼ cup at a time if necessary.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More bread flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead in the olives. Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 1 large or 2 small loaves.

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 small loaves.

Sourdough Naan

In northern India, naan is made using milk curds (used in cheese making), which leaven the dough by fermentation. The following dough, which uses baking powder and baking soda for additional leavening, must be allowed to ferment overnight or, better still, for 24 hours. When not using curds, a starter is desirable for superior results. Once the dough is prepared, a small portion of finished dough can be saved in the refrigerator until the next time you make naan. It will keep for 1 or 2 days in a covered container in the refridgerator. Note that any leftover yeast dough will work. (A recipe for naan using yeast is on this page.)

Starter

Dough

STARTER Mix all of the ingredients until smooth, then allow to stand, either uncovered or covered with a length of cheesecloth. Leave at room temperature until the starter becomes bubbly and puffy in appearance (at least overnight, and preferably for 24 hours).

DOUGH In a large bowl, combine the starter, eggs, sugar, 3 cups of the flour, the baking powder, baking soda, and salt. Mix with a large wooden spoon until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead until the dough feels smooth and silky (8 to 10 minutes). More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if necessary, but keep this dough softer than usual.

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover with plastic wrap and allow to stand for at least 3 hours. Punch down and divide into 6 equal pieces. Shape into rounds with your palms by cupping them over the dough and working the hands in a circular motion to form into a tight ball. Coat the rounds with oil or melted butter, cover, and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING On a clean, oiled work surface, flatten the first round with oil-coated hands. Roll or press into a 6- to 8-inch circle, turning at least once to coat with oil. Use your fingertips to press a series of indentations all over the bread.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 550°F. Oven tiles or a baking stone work best. If neither is available, place 2 baking sheets with rims, nested together and bottoms up, on the middle shelf of the oven and let them preheat for at least 5 minutes. Bake 1 or 2 naan at a time. Drape each over the palm of your hand and flip over onto the hot tiles. Bake until puffy and the bottom is flecked with brown (about 2 minutes). Pierce any extra-large bubbles with a long barbecue fork or skewer. Immediately turn on the broiler. With the door closed, continue baking until the tops begin to show some brown (1 to 2 minutes). Do not overbake. Switch the oven back to the bake setting. Remove the naan immediately with a long-handled spatula and cover by placing in the folds of a clean towel. Continue baking 1 or 2 naan at a time, stacking them 6 high in the towel and keeping them covered. Naan can be eaten warm or left to cool in the towel and then frozen in plastic bags.

YIELD Makes 6 naan.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Make the starter as above.

In the work bowl, place the starter, eggs, sugar, 2 cups of the flour, the baking powder, baking soda, and salt. Pulse to combine. Mix in 1 more cup flour. Pulse until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl (2 to 3 minutes), adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too sticky, but keep this dough softer than usual. Do not overmix. Additional kneading by hand may be necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 6 naan.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Starter

Dough

STARTER Mix all of the ingredients until smooth, then allow to stand, uncovered (or cover with a layer of cheesecloth), at room temperature until the starter becomes bubbly and puffy in appearance (at least overnight, and preferably for 24 hours).

DOUGH In the mixing bowl, place the starter, eggs, sugar, 4½ cups of the flour, the baking powder, baking soda, and salt. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl, then mix at first speed until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Knead for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More flour can be added in small amounts as necessary, but keep this dough softer than usual. The finished dough should feel smooth and silky. You can mix at second speed for the last few minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 9 rounds.

YIELD Makes 9 naan.

Variation

Whole Wheat Chapati, Tandoori Style

Chapati is a layered Indian bread generally baked on a griddle. This is a northern Indian version baked tandoori style. This is my favorite of the home-baked Indian breads.

Substitute 1 cup whole wheat flour (1½ cups in the stand mixer recipe) for the bread flour. Divide into 6 pieces (9 in the stand mixer recipe) and shape into rounds. Roll out each round into as thin a circle as possible. Brush the top with oil or melted butter. Fold the first circle into fours to form a triangle. Let the dough rest for 10 minutes while rolling and folding the rest of the pieces. Beginning with the first triangle, repeat this process 2 more times. (Roll out into as round a shape as possible.) If the dough gets too tough to roll, let it rest until it softens. Bake as above.

YIELD Makes 6 naan (9 in the stand mixer recipe).

San Francisco–Style Sourdough Bread

San Francisco sourdough bread had its roots in the gold rush days, when the miners, known as sour-bellies, carried a starter, or sour, in a pouch wrapped around their waist. Body heat kept the starter active. It was used for cooking flapjacks and baking biscuits.

A starter can be begun naturally with 3 to 4 days of standing time, but the results are never certain, and I prefer to give nature a bit of assistance. The addition of a minute amount of yeast will cut this time to 12 to 24 hours.

Once the starter is prepared, it can be kept indefinitely in the refrigerator with periodic refreshing. Prepare the starter the day before you are going to bake (3 to 4 days if yeast is not used). Store the prepared starter in a covered container in the refrigerator and stir down every 2 to 3 days. Once a week add 1 teaspoon water and 1 to 2 teaspoons flour and stir until smooth (see Rye Sour, this page).

Starter

Sponge

Dough

STARTER In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the milk powder and flour and stir until smooth. Leave uncovered in a draft-free spot for 12 to 24 hours. If yeast is not used in the starter, leave it to bubble, rise, and fall for 3 to 4 days. When ready, the starter will have a fermented aroma, which is normal.

SPONGE In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the flour and stir until smooth, then cover and set aside until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge. Add 1 cup of the starter, 1 cup of the flour, the sugar, salt, and baking soda. Stir with a wooden spoon stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured surface and knead. Add more flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough remains slack. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (10 to 12 minutes).

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl, turn to coat, and let rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

SHAPING Leave the dough in 1 piece or cut into 2 or 3 pieces. Shape into 1 large round loaf, 2 Vienna-shaped loaves (see this page), or 2 or 3 long baguettes. Cover with a cloth and let rest for 15 minutes. Place on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal, or in greased baguette pans if available. Cover and allow to double in size. Brush the tops of the breads with water. Slash the long loaf with 3 or 4 diagonal cuts; for a round loaf, cut 2 lengthwise and 2 crosswise slashes, tic-tac-toe fashion (#).

BAKING Preheat the oven to 375°F. Five minutes before baking, place a broiler pan on the floor of the oven. Place the bread on the middle shelf of the oven. Protect your hands and face from the initial burst of steam as you carefully pour 1 cup of hot water into the broiler pan. Do not open the oven door for at least 10 minutes. Bake the bread for 35 to 45 minutes, allowing 10 to 15 minutes extra baking time for the larger loaf. If using an oven stone or tiles, bake directly on them for the last 5 to 10 minutes for a better crust. The bread is done when tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound. Do not hesitate to leave the bread in the oven an extra 5 to 10 minutes if you like a very crusty loaf. Let cool, uncovered, on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 or 2 large loaves or 3 small loaves.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

STARTER Prepare the starter as above.

SPONGE Place the sponge ingredients in the work bowl. Pulse until smooth. Keep the processor’s cover in place and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). You can leave the bowl and blade in place on the machine.

DOUGH Pulse once or twice to punch down the sponge, then add the starter, 1 cup of the flour, the sugar, salt, and baking soda. Pulse until the flour is incorporated. Additional flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is softer than usual. Knead by pulsing for about 60 seconds. Do not overmix or the dough will get too hot. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. It may be necessary to knead by hand for several minutes to make the dough elastic.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to stand until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 to 3 loaves.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

Starter

Sponge

Dough

STARTER Mix all of the ingredients until smooth, then allow to stand, uncovered, at room temperature until the starter becomes bubbly and puffy in appearance (at least overnight, and preferably for 24 hours). If yeast is omitted, prepare the starter 3 to 4 days ahead, allowing time for it to bubble, rise, and fall.

SPONGE In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the flour and mix until smooth. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes).

DOUGH Stir down the sponge with one or two rotations of the beater. Add 1½ cups of the starter, 1½ cups of the flour, the sugar, salt, and baking soda. Pulse with the on/off switch until the flour is incorporated enough that it won’t be thrown out of the bowl. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Knead at first speed until the dough is smooth and elastic (10 to 12 minutes). More flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is slack. Second speed can be used for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in volume (30 to 45 minutes). Proceed as in Shaping and Baking, above, except shape into 2 large loaves or 4 small loaves.

YIELD Makes 2 large or 4 small loaves.

Sourdough Italian Bread

This bread is an adaptation of a California sourdough bread recipe. I first tasted it at Fisherman’s Wharf in San Francisco and enjoyed its rich flavor.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, sugar, shortening, bread flour, 2 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the side of the bowl.

Turn out onto a floured work surface and knead. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too sticky. Knead until the dough is soft and elastic (8 to 10 minutes).

RISING Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Allow to rise until doubled in volume (about 45 minutes). Punch down, shape into a ball, and let rest for 15 minutes.

SHAPING Shape into a round or any Italian bread shape (see this page). Place on a baking sheet dusted with cornmeal and allow to rise until doubled in size. Brush the tops with water. For a round loaf, cut 2 lengthwise slashes followed by 2 crosswise slashes, tic-tac-toe fashion (#). For a long loaf, make 3 or 4 diagonal slashes.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Bake with steam (see this page) until brown and crusty (35 to 45 minutes). The bread is done when tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound. The top and sides of the loaf should feel hard to the touch. Let cool on a wire rack. This bread keeps nicely for several days in a bread box and also freezes well.

YIELD Makes 1 large loaf.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, Rye Sour, sugar, shortening, bread flour, 2 cups of the all-purpose flour (1 cup at a time), and the salt. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 large loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, sugar, shortening, bread flour, 4 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl, adding more all-purpose flour if necessary.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More all-purpose flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten. Proceed as in Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except shape into 4 loaves.

YIELD Makes 4 loaves.

Sourdough Tuscan Bread

Tuscan-style country Italian bread has a distinctive broad, round shape. Large wheels of this bread are impressive. You can achieve similar results using the stand mixer recipe and making one large loaf. Whole wheat flour is added here for color and an earthy flavor. This bread is often served when hard, drizzled with high-quality olive oil.

In a large bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to stand for a few minutes to soften. Add the Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, cake flour, 2 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Stir until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface. Knead with a turn, fold, push motion, adding more all-purpose flour ¼ cup at a time if the dough is sticky. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes). Transfer to an oiled bowl and turn to coat.

RISING Cover and allow to rise until puffed up (about 30 minutes). Punch down and allow to rise once more until doubled in size (30 to 45 minutes).

SHAPING Shape into a ball, then flatten down with your hand. Carefully transfer the bread onto a floured baking sheet (if you’re using an oven stone or tiles, transfer the bread to a floured peel). Proof, covered, until puffed up (about 20 minutes). Dust with flour and score with a tic-tac-toe design.

BAKING Preheat the oven to 425°F. Place the baking sheet on the middle shelf of the oven (if using an oven stone or tiles, carefully slip the bread onto them from the peel). Bake with steam (see this page) until tapping the bottom with your fingertips produces a hollow sound and the top and sides are very firm (30 to 45 minutes). If using a baking sheet, bake directly on the oven rack for the last 5 to 10 minutes for a crustier loaf. Let cool on a wire rack.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

Variations

Whole Wheat Sourdough Tuscan Bread

Replace half of the all-purpose flour with whole wheat flour mixed in 1 cup at a time.

White Sourdough Tuscan Bread

Replace the whole wheat flour with unbleached all-purpose flour.

FOOD PROCESSOR: STEEL BLADE

Instead of 1 cup warm water use:

In the work bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the ice water, Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, cake flour, and salt. Pulse until the ingredients are incorporated. Add 2 cups of the all-purpose flour, 1 cup at a time. Pulse until the dough tries to ride up on top of the blade. More all-purpose flour can be added ¼ cup at a time if the dough is too soft. Process for 2 to 3 minutes. If the machine strains and threatens to stop, divide the dough in half and process each half separately, then knead together by hand. Do not overmix. Extra kneading by hand is sometimes necessary to make the dough elastic.

Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and shape into a round. Place in an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Proceed as in the Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above.

YIELD Makes 1 loaf.

STAND MIXER: FLAT BEATER AND DOUGH HOOK

In the mixing bowl, sprinkle the yeast over the warm water and allow to soften. Add the Rye Sour, whole wheat flour, cake flour, 3 cups of the all-purpose flour, and the salt. Mix until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.

Remove and scrape down the beater and insert the dough hook. Mix for 8 to 10 minutes at first speed. More all-purpose flour can be added in small amounts as necessary. The dough should be smooth and elastic. You can use second speed for the last 2 minutes to strengthen the gluten.

Transfer the dough to an oiled bowl and turn to coat. Proceed as in the Rising, Shaping, and Baking, above, except allow extra time for the larger loaf (40 to 50 minutes all together).

YIELD Makes 1 large or 2 regular loaves. Try the large.